Oxford_Guide_to_English_Grammar

16 PARTICIPLES PAGE 174

2 The pattern I keptyou waiting

The trainer had the players running round the field. We soon got the machine working again.

DoctorJones is rather slow. He often keeps his patients waiting. The driver left us standing at the side of the road.

They caught a student cheating in the exam.

We can use an object + active participle after have, get, start, keep, leave, find and catch. The participle here means action for a period of time.

NOTE

c We can also use have in the sense of 'have something happening to you'.

Rory suddenly realized he had two dogs following him. I won't have people treating this house like a hotel.

3 The pattern I spent some time waiting

I've spent half an hour looking for that letter.

The company wasted millions of pounds investing in out-of-date technology.

We can also use a participle after spend, waste or lose and an expression of time or money.

4 The pattern You were seen doing it • 110(2)

The men were seen cutting down a tree.

We were left standing at the side ofthe road.

5 The pattern I want it done

Pamela wanted the carpet (to be) cleaned.

I'd like this drawing (to be) photocopied, please. We prefer the lights (to be) turned down.

We can use an object + passive participle (or passive to-infinitive) after want, need, (would) like, (would) love, (would) prefer and (would) hate.

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17

Nouns and noun phrases

141 Summary

Nouns • 142

Nouns are words like cup, democracy, game, driver, Chicago. They do not have special endings to show that they are nouns, or to show that they are subject or object.

Noun phrases • 143

A noun combines with other words in a noun phrase. the cup our democracy an exciting game

Determiners, quantifiers and modifiers come in a fixed order before the noun.

We cannot use an uncountable noun with a/an. NOT a butter

But we can say a pound ofbutter.

Some nouns can be either countable or uncountable, depending on the context. peel an onion/a pizza with onion

The plural of nouns • 145

We use the plural for more than one, and for a negative or unknown quantity.

I've been here three weeks. Have you got any cassettes?

The possessive form • 146

The possessive form of a noun expresses possession and other relations.

Pat's house the twins' parents the company'sfuture

We can sometimes use the pattern the parents ofthe twins.

The first noun tells us what kind of store, system, train or man.

Phrases after a noun • 148

There can be a phrase after a noun. the man in the brown suit information about the course that sign there

Nominalization •149

Some noun phrases are equivalent to clauses. The start of the race means that the race starts.

142 Nouns

AN EXPENSIVE TRAP

Worried that ground staff were stealing miniature bottles of whiskyfrom a Pan-Am aircraft, security guards set a trap. In the summer of1978 they wired up a cuckoo clock inside the drinks cabinet so arranged that it would stop whenever the door was opened. This, they said, would reveal the exact time ofthe theft.

They omitted, however, to tell the plane's crew, with the result that a stewardess, Miss Susan Becker, assumed it was a bomb. She alerted the pilot ofthe Boeing

727 who made an emergency landing at Berlin where eighty passengers left in a hurry through fire exits.

A Pan-Am spokesman said afterwards that the miniature bottles of whisky on the plane cost 17 pence each. The cost ofthe emergency landing was £6,500.

(from Stephen Pile The Book of Heroic Failures)

1 The meaning of nouns

Nouns have many different kinds of meanings. Concrete nouns refer to physical things: aircraft, clock, door, whisky. Abstract nouns refer to ideas and qualities: time, result, security. Nouns can also refer to actions and events: theft, landing; and to roles: pilot, spokesman. A noun can also be a name: Berlin.

2 The form of nouns

aMany nouns have no special form to show that they are nouns. But there are a number of endings used to form nouns from other words: movement, intention, difference, kindness, security, landing. • 285(2)

bMost nouns do not have gender. There are only a few word pairs such as steward/ stewardess. • 285(3e)

cNouns do not have endings to show that they are subject or object. The only endings are for the plural (bottles, • 145) and the possessive (the plane's crew, •146).

143 Noun phrases

1 A noun phrase can be one word.

Whisky is expensive. (uncountable noun)

Planes take offfrom here. (plural noun) They landed atBerlin. (name)

She alerted the pilot. (pronoun)

It can also be more than one word.

Someone was stealing the whisky.

A lot of planes take off from here.

Security guards set a trap.

2In a noun phrase there can be determiners, quantifiers and modifiers, as well as a noun.

a Determiners

These come before the noun.

a bomb the result this idea my bag

The determiners are the articles (a, the), demonstratives (this, that, these, those) and Possessives (e.g. my, your).

b Quantifiers

These also come before the noun.

a lot ofmoney two people every photo halfthe passengers Quantifiers are a lot of, many, much, afew, every, each, all, most, both, half, some, any, no etc. • 176

c Modifiers

A noun can be modified by an adjective or by another noun.

A prepositional phrase or adverb phrase can come after the noun and modify it. the summer of1978 the people inside • 148

dOverview

This is the basic structure of a noun phrase.

3 Here are some more details about the structure of a noun phrase.

a A quantifier can be more than one word.

a lot ofmoney two hundred and fifty passengers

b We sometimes use both a quantifier and a determiner. all that whisky both the doors

We can do this with all, both and half.

We can also use a determiner after a quantifier + of.

each of the doors a lot of my time one of these magazines

For more about quantifiers and determiners together, • 178(fb, 1c).

c Sometimes a quantifier comes after a determiner. We can use many, few or a

NOTE

We cannot use a lot ofor afew in this pattern.

NOT the a lot of rooms of the house

dA possessive form (e.g. Susan's, the man's) functions as a determiner. a lot ofSusan'sfriends (Compare: a lot ofherfriends)

e There can be more than one adjective or noun modifier. a lovely hot meal china soup dishes

For the order of adjectives, • 202.

f The modifier can be a gerund or participle.

g After a noun we can use a clause as a modifier. a plan to catch a thief

a clock hidden inside the drinks cabinet the stewardess who was serving drinks

h Next, last and first, second, third etc come after a determiner, not before it.

4A noun phrase can be a subject, an object, a complement or an adverbial. It can also be the object of a preposition.

144 Countable and uncountable nouns

1 Introduction

aCountable nouns can be singular or plural: book(s), hotel(s), boat(s), day(s), job(s), mile(s), piece(s), pwblem(s), dream(s). Uncountable nouns are neither singular nor plural: water, sugar, salt, money, music, electricity, happiness, excitement.

We use countable nouns for separate, individual things such as books and hotels, things we can count. We use uncountable nouns for things that do not naturally divide into separate units, such as water and sugar, things we cannot count.

bMany countable nouns are concrete: table(s), car(s), shoe(s). But some are abstract: situation(s), idea(s). Many uncountable nouns are abstract: beauty, love, psychology. But some are concrete: butter, plastic.

Many nouns can be either countable or uncountable. • (5)

c An uncountable noun takes a singular verb, and we use this/that and it.

This milk is off. I'll pour it down the sink.

2 Words that go with countable/uncountable nouns

Some words go with both countable and uncountable nouns: the boat or the water. But some words go with only one kind of noun: a boat but NOT a water, how much water but how many boats.

4 Countable or uncountable noun?

aIt is not always obvious from the meaning whether a noun is countable or uncountable. For example, information, news and furniture are uncountable.

I've got some informationforyou. NOT an information

There was no news ofthe missing hiker NOT There were no news. They had very little furniture, NOT veryfewfurnitures

But we can use piece(s) of, bit(s) of and item(s) of with many such nouns.

I've got a piece of information for you. They had veryfew items offurniture.

bHere are some uncountable nouns which may be countable in other languages.

The following nouns are countable. Their meanings are related to the uncountable nouns above. For example, suitcase is countable, but luggage is uncountable.

NOTE

aDamages means 'money paid in compensation'.

He received damages for his injuries.

bKnowledge and education can be singular when the meaning is less general.

I had a good education. A knowledge ofSpanish is essential. c A help means 'helpful'.

Thanks. You've been a great help.

dWork can be countable: a work ofart, the works ofShakespeare. Works can mean 'factory': a steel works. • 154(3)

eWe cannot use clothes in the singular or with a number. We can say some clothes but

NOT four clothes. We can say four garments or four items of clothing.

eNouns which describe feelings are usually uncountable, e.g. fear, hope. But some can be countable, especially for feelings about something specific.

a fear ofdogs hopes for thefuture doubts about the wisdom of the decision an intense dislike ofquiz shows

Pity, shame, wonder, relief, pleasure and delight are singular as complement. It seemed a pity to break up the party.

Thanks very much. ~ It's a pleasure.

fWhen ordering food or drink or talking about portions, we can use countable nouns.

I'll have a lager. (= a glass of lager)

Three coffees, please. (= three cups of coffee)

Two sugars. (= two spoonfuls of sugar)

Some nouns can be countable with the meaning 'kind(s) of...'

These lagers are all the same. (= kinds of lager) There are lots of different grasses. (= kinds of grass)

145 The plural of nouns

1 Form

aA countable noun (door, plane, stewardess) has both a singular and a plural form. To form the plural we add s (doors, planes) or es (stewardesses).

b Some nouns have an irregular plural, e.g. man men. • 295

c To form the plural of a compound noun or of two nouns together, we add s/es to

We also add s/es to the end of a noun formed from a verb + adverb. breakdowns walk-outs check-ups

When a prepositional phrase comes after the noun, we add s/es to the noun.

Doctors ofPhilosophy mothers-in-law

And when an adverb follows a noun in er, we add s/es to the noun. passers-by runners-up