Oxford_Guide_to_English_Grammar

6 Capital letters

We use a capital letter in these places,

aAt the beginning of a sentence,

bFor the pronoun I.

cWith the names of people: Jason Donovan, Agatha Christie. Titles also have a capital: Doctor Owen, Mrs Whitehouse, Uncle William.

NOTE

Words like doctor and father have a capital when they are a title, or when we use them to address someone.

dWith the names of places: Australia, New York, Oxford. When a noun is part of a name, it has a capital letter too: the RiverAire, the Humber Bridge, Fifth Avenue, Paddington Station.

eWith some expressions of time such as the names of days and months: Tuesday, April; special days: New Year's Day, Easter Sunday; historical periods and important events: the Modern Age, the First World War.

fWith nationality words: a French singer, I'm learning Greek.

gWith the titles of books, newspapers, films and so on: Animal Farm, The Daily Telegraph.

NOTE In titles, grammatical words often have a small letter: Strangers oka Train.

hIn most abbreviations which are formed from the first letters of each word in a phrase: the BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation).

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8

The verb phrase

57 Summary

Verb forms • 58

Verbs have the following forms: a base form (e.g. look), an s-form (looks), a past form (looked), an ing-form (looking) and a past/passive participle (looked).

Finite and non-finite verbs • 59

A finite verb phrase is one that can be the main verb of a sentence. A non-finite verb is an infinitive, gerund or participle.

The structure of the verb phrase • 60

A finite verb phrase can be an ordinary verb on its own.

Your hair looks nice.

There can be one or more auxiliaries before the ordinary verb.

I have looked everywhere.

We are looking for the key.

You should have looked in the drawer.

Meaning in the verb phrase • 61

The choice of tense and auxiliaries depends on meaning - what happens and how we see it.

Action verbs and state verbs • 62

There are action verbs (e.g. walk, make) and state verbs (e.g. own, like). State verbs are not normally continuous.

58 Verb forms

MODERN CRIME DETECTION

If you leave valuable articles in a changing room, it is quite likely that someone will steal them while you are playing tennis or whatever. Afew years ago, police in a Yorkshire town were informed by a local sports club that all kinds ofthings kept disappearing from the men's changing room, and the club were anxious to stop it. 'This has gone on for too long,' said the club chairman.

The police took immediate action. They installed a secret video camera so that they could find out what was happening, and afew days later they played back the video at police headquarters, eager to see the thief filmed in the act. All it showed, however, was a naked policeman, a member of the club, looking for his clothes, which had been stolen.

1 Verbs have the following forms.

2 Some of the verb forms have more than one use.

59 Finite and non-finite verbs

1A finite verb phrase is one that can be the main verb of a sentence. A non-finite verb phrase is an infinitive, gerund or participle.

NOTE

A form with ed can be finite or non-finite, depending on the context.

They filmed the thief. (past tense - finite)

They saw the thief filmed in the act. (participle -non-finite)

2 A finite verb phrase can come in a main clause or a sub clause.

The police took action.

We were pleased when the police took action. A non-finite verb comes only in a sub clause.

We wanted the police to take action. We approved ofthe police taking action.

We approved ofthe action taken by the police.

Sometimes there are two verb phrases together, a finite one and then a non-finite one.

The police wanted to take action.

Things kept disappearing from the changing room.

For the to-infinitive and gerund in these patterns, • 121.

3The (first) auxiliary is important in negatives and questions. In negatives, the auxiliary has not after it. • 17(2)

They haven't played the video.

In questions the auxiliary comes before the subject. • 23

Have they played the video?

In simple tenses, the auxiliary is do.

They didn't play the video. Did they play the video?

61 Meaning in the verb phrase

A NEW FLAT

Ian: How'syour new flat?

Jason: Oh, it's okay, thanks. We've been there a month now, and I think we're going to like it. We're decorating at the moment. You must come and see us when we've finished.

Ian: Thanks. That'd be nice. You were lucky to find somewhere.

Jason: Yes, we were getting pretty desperate. We'd been looking for ages and couldn't find anywhere. The flat wasn't advertised. We heard about it through a friend. It's quite convenient too. We get the train to work.

Ian: What floor is the flat on?

Jason: Well, we live right at the top, but there are onlyfour floors. Ifthere was a lift, it would be perfect.

1 Tense

The first word of a finite verb phrase is either present or past. Usually the tenses mean present time and past time, 'now' and 'then'.

Present: I think we're going to like it.

We live right at the top.

Past: We heard about it through a friend.

We were getting pretty desperate.

NOTE

In some contexts the choice of present or past depends on the speaker's attitude.

Haveyouamoment?Iwanttoaskyousomething.

Haveyouamoment?Iwantedtoaskyousomething.

Here the present tense is more direct. The past tense is more distant. It makes the request more tentative and so more polite. For these tenses in conditional clauses, • 257(4c).

2 Modal verbs

With modal verbs we can express ideas such as actions being possible or necessary.

We couldn't find anywhere. You must come and see us.

For the meaning of modal verbs, • 102.

3 The perfect

These verb phrases have perfect aspect.

We havejust finished the decorating.

We have been there a month now.

We had been lookingfor ages.

The perfect means 'up to now' or 'up to then'. The decorating came to an end in the period leading up to the present time.

We can sometimes choose the present perfect or the past simple, depending on how we see the action. • 65

We've finished the decorating. (in the period up to now)

We finished the decorating. (in the past)

4 The continuous

These verb phrases are continuous (sometimes called 'progressive').

We are decorating at the moment. We had been looking for ages. We were getting pretty desperate.

The continuous means 'for a period of time'. We are in the middle of decorating; the search for the flat went on for a period of time.

Sometimes the use of the continuous depends on how we see the action. We do not use the continuous if we see the action as complete.

Period of time: We had been lookingfor ages.

Complete action: We had looked everywhere.

State verbs (e.g. know) are not normally continuous. • 62

For present continuous and simple, • 64.

5 The passive

We use the passive when the subject is not the agent but what the action is directed at. • 103

The flat wasn't advertised.

In the conversation A new flat, Jason chooses a passive sentence here because the flat is the best subject. It relates to what has gone before.

62 Action verbs and state verbs

1 Verbs can express actions or states.

An action means something happening, something changing. Action verbs are verbs like do, go, buy, play, stop, take, decorate, say, ask, decide etc.

A state means something staying the same. These verbs are state verbs:

Most action verbs refer to physical actions, but some are verbs of reporting (say) or verbs of thinking (decide). State verbs express meanings such as being, having, opinions and feelings.

2We can use action verbs with the continuous, but state verbs are not normally continuous.

We are decorating the flat, but NOT We are owning the flat.

Some state verbs cannot be passive. • 104(6b)

3Some verbs have different meanings. One meaning can be an action and another meaning can be a state.

We can use the continuous with some state verbs if we see something as active thinking or feeling for a period of time, rather than a permanent attitude.

I love holidays. (permanent attitude)

I'm loving every minute of this holiday. (active enjoyment)

Here are some more examples.

How are you liking the play? ~ Well, it's all right so far.

Be can be an action verb meaning 'behave'. • 84(3)

The dog was being a nuisance, so we shut him out.

NOTE

aMean (= have the meaning) is always a state verb.

What does this word mean?

bEnjoy expresses an action.

I'm enjoying the party. NOT I enjoy the party.

PAGE 81 62 Action verbs and state verbs

5 Some verbs always express states and so cannot be continuous.

At the moment the building contains some old machinery. I know the town quite well now.

These verbs are belong to, consist of, contain, depend on, deserve, desire, know, matter, own, possess, prefer, seem.

NOTE

The expression get to know can be continuous.

I'm getting to know the town quite well.

6Hurt, ache and feel can be simple or continuous with little difference in meaning.

My arm hurt/was hurting. I feel/I'm feeling depressed.

7We often use can and could for perceptions.

I can see something under the sofa.

We could hear music. 1 can smell something burning. Sam couldfeel the weight of the rucksack.

We do not normally use the continuous. NOT I'm seeing something.

We can use the past simple when the thing that we saw or heard was a complete action.

We saw a magnificent sunset. Tom heard the whole story. Theyfelt the building shake.

Smell, taste and feel as action verbs express a deliberate action.

Steve picked up the bottle and smelted the milk.

When we arrived, people were already tasting the wine.

Judy wasfeeling her way in the dark.

NOTE

a See (= meet) is an action verb, and see (= understand) is a state verb.

I'm seeing the doctor in half an hour.

You put the cassette in here, like this. ~ Oh, I see.

bLook (at something), watch and listen are action verbs.

We looked/We were looking at the sunset.

cFeel (= believe) is a state verb.

I feel we should discuss the matter.

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9

Verb tenses and aspects

63 Summary

A finite verb phrase is present tense or past tense. It can also have perfect aspect (have+ past participle) or continuous aspect (be + ing-form). The tenses and aspects can combine in the following ways.

Present continuous and present simple • 64

We are playing cards now.

We play in the orchestra every week.

Present perfect and past simple • 65

We have played two games already.

We played tennis yesterday.

Past continuous •66

We were playing cards at the time.

Present perfect continuous • 67

We have been playing cards all evening.

Past perfect and past perfect continuous • 68

We had played the game before then.

We had been playing for ages.

OVERVIEW: uses of tenses and aspects • 69

Each of the eight forms above has a different meaning, depending on such things as the time and length of an action, and how the speaker sees it.

64 Present continuous and present simple

MACBETH

Andrew: What are you reading?

Sadie: 'Macbeth'. We're doing it in English. Our class is going to the theatre to see it next week. Mr Adams is taking us.

Andrew: What's it about?

Sadie: Well Macbeth murders the King ofScotland. But it doesn't do him any good.

Andrew: Mr Davis takes usfor English. We aren't doing Shakespeare though. Sadie: MrAdams loves Shakespeare. He's always quoting bits at us. Shakespeare

is England's greatest writer, he says.