§5. Translator’s impact

In the attempt to make a good translation, a translator, nevertheless bears the influence of cultural and literary trends typical of the time, which effect his/her outlook and have a certain impact on the translation. It brings us back to the history of translation. It is known that Vasily Zhukovsky, translating Byron, avoided all themes of rebellion from the poet’s works, as they were alien to the translator. On the other hand, he emphasized the religious motifs in Byron’s poems. He adjusted Byron’s poetry to himself, which allowed V. Belinsky to say that he was a poet rather than a translator.

Another example of ideological incursion in translation was Voltaire’s translation of Hamlet’s soliloquy, not as a meditation on death, but as a diatribe against religion.²¹⁸

These days it is considered necessary for a translator to follow only the source language author, sometimes at the expense of his/her own artistic work.

Nevertheless, there is no doubt that the quality of translation is dependent on translator’s personal knowledge, intuitions and artistic competence.

Chapter 2. Speech functions and translation §1. Language and speech functions

Pragmatics studies language in use. Following Saussure, language in use is speech (cf. langue and parole). Large stretches of speech are called discourse.

The use of language is associated with language functions. By function linguists mean the role and purpose of the language. Sometimes the term ‘function’ is understood in a more narrow way. In this sense, the term determines a role of a language element in syntax (the function of the subject, predicate, or object) and in morphology (the function of a form, the function of the suffix, etc.). Correspondingly, the term ‘function’ refers to an element position in a construction or the meaning of a form or construction.

Two language functions are most widely recognized – communicative and cognitive (formulating thoughts), though there have been many attempts to establish more detailed classifications of language functions. The Austrian psychologist and linguist Karl Buhler singled out three language functions manifested in any speech event: expressive function (relating with the text producer), appealing function (focusing on the receptor), and referential (representation) function (representing objects and phenomena, i.e. the subject matter).²¹⁹Yuri Stepanov also based his language functions on the semiotic principle. He designated the nominative, syntactic, and pragmatic functions as universal properties of the language corresponding to the three aspects of semiotics – semantics, syntax, and pragmatics.²²⁰

The question of differentiating between language functions and speech functions has so far been disputable. Some linguists do not discriminate language functions from speech functions.²²¹Others stress the difference between them.²²²While language functions are universal and constant, speech functions are typical of a certain speech event; they are temporary, characterized by definite language elements. Language functions are realized through speech.

The most recognizable classification of speech functions belongs to Roman Jakobson.²²³He distinguished six functions: referential (informative), expressive (emotive), conative (voluntative), phatic (creating and maintaining social contact), metalingual (describing language), and poetic (aesthetic).

Following Halliday, translation theorists added one more function to the list – interpersonal function, which implies the speaker’s intervention in the use of language and the expression of attitude.²²⁴

Obviously, each discourse has more than one speech functions. As a matter of fact, it combines a number of functions but one of them is always predominant.