Приложение

Text 1.

Drilling.

Drilling is a cutting process that uses a drill bit to cut or enlarge a hole in solid materials. The drill bit is a multipoint, end cutting tool. It cuts by applying pressure and rotation to the workpiece, which forms chips at the cutting edge.

Drilled holes are characterized by their sharp edge on the entrance side and the presence of burrs on the exit side (unless they have been removed). Also, the inside of the hole usually has helical feed marks.

Drilling may affect the mechanical properties of the workpiece by creating low residual stresses around the hole opening and a very thin layer of highly stressed and disturbed material on the newly formed surface. This causes the workpiece to become more susceptible to corrosion at the stressed surface.

For fluted drill bits, any chips are removed via the flutes. Chips may be long spirals or small flakes, depending on the material, and process parameters. The type of chips formed can be an indicator of the machinability of the material, with long gummy chips reducing machinability.

When possible drilled holes should be located perpendicular to the workpiece surface. This minimizes the drill bit's tendency to "walk", that is, to be deflected, which causes the hole to be misplaced. The higher the length-to-diameter ratio of the drill bit, the higher the tendency to walk. The tendency to walk is also preempted in various other ways, which include:

• Establishing a centering mark or feature before drilling, such as by:

• Casting, molding, or forging a mark into the workpiece;

• Center punching;

• Spot drilling (i.e., center drilling);

• Spot facing, which is facing a certain area on a rough casting or forging to establish, essentially, an island of precisely known surface in a sea of imprecisely known surface.

• Constraining the position of the drill bit using a drill jig with drill bushings.

Surface finish in drilling may range from 32 to 500 microinches. Finish cuts will generate surfaces near 32 microinches, and roughing will be near 500 microinches.

Cutting fluid is commonly used to cool the drill bit, increase tool life, increase speeds and feeds, increase the surface finish, and aid in ejecting chips. Application of these fluids is usually done by flooding the workpiece or by applying a spray mist.

In deciding which drill(s) to use it is important to consider the task at hand and evaluate which drill would best accomplish the task. There are a variety of drill styles that each serve a different purpose. The subland drill is capable of drilling more than one diameter. The spade drill is used to drill larger hole sizes. Theindexabledrillisusefulinmanagingchips.

Задание 1. Расскажите, что нового вы узнали из текста, используя следующие разговорные формулы:

I’d like to say some words about; it’s important to say that; it should be pointed; as is known;

the text is about; the text deals with; the content of the text; it should be noted that; according to the text; the subject of the text is; as a matter of fact; I can add; I’d like to say that; broadly speaking; as far as I know; to my mind; in my opinion.

Задание 2. Закончите предложение, с которого можно начать аннотацию текста:

The purpose of this text is to…

Text 2.

Classification of drilling methods.

By way of influence on rock drilling methods are classified on mechanical and non-mechanical distinction drilling. By mechanical drilling, drilling tools directly affects the rock, destroying it, and if a non mechanical failure occurs without direct contact with the rock source of influence on it. Non-mechanical means (hydraulic, thermal, electrophysical) are under development and drilling for oil and gas wells are not currently used.

Mechanical drilling methods are divided into percussion and rotary. When percussion drilling destruction of rocks is a chisel, hanging on a rope. Drilling tool also includes a shock rod and the cable lock. He hung on the rope, which straddles unit mounted on a mast. Reciprocating chisel tool provides a drilling rig.

With the deepening of the well rope lengthens. Cylindricity wells is provided by turning the drill bit during operation.

To clean the face of shattered rock drilling tools periodically removed from the wells and bailer is lowered into it, like a long bucket with a valve at the bottom. When immersed in a mixture of bailer fluid (reservoir or poured on top) and drilled rock particles valve opens and the bailer is filled with this mixture. When lifting bailer valve is closed and the mixture is extracted to the top.

At the end of treatment in the face again falls well drilling tools and drilling continues.

To avoid the collapse of the borehole walls in her lowered casing, the length of which are increasing with the deepening of the face.

Oil and gas wells are constructed using rotary drilling. With this method does not break up rock beats, and destroyed a rotating drill bit, which acts on the axial load. The torque is transmitted to the bit or on the surface of the rotator (rotor) through a column of drill pipes (Rotary Drilling) or from the downhole motor (turbo-drill, electric drill, screw the motor), mounted directly above the drill bit.

Turbodrill – a hydraulic turbine, driven in rotation by means of injection wells in the drilling fluid. The electric drill is an electric motor is protected against the penetration of the liquid food which is served by cable to the surface. Screw engine – a type of downhole hydraulic machine in which to convert the energy of the flow of washing fluid into mechanical energy of the rotational motion of the screw mechanism is used.

By the nature of rock at the bottom distinguish drilling methods are classified on solid and core drilling. With the continuous drilling of rock disintegration over the entire area of ​​the face. Core drilling involves the destruction of species only in the ring in order to extract the core – a cylindrical sample of rock for the whole or part of the length of the borehole. With the sampling sites studied properties, composition and structure of rocks, as well as the composition and properties of the fluid saturating the rock.

All drill bits are classified into three types:

1. chisel cutting-shearing action of destroying the rock vanes (blade bit);

2. crushing bit-shearing action of destroying the rock teeth, located on the cone (cone bits);

3. bit-cutting abrasive action of destroying the rock diamond grains or carbide rods, which are located in front of the drill bit (diamond and carbide bits.)

Задание 1. Прокомментируйте следующие тезисы, используя разговорные формулы:

The statement is right (wrong): it should be pointed; it should be noted; according to the text; as a matter of fact; broadly speaking; as far as I know; to my mind; in my opinion.

1.1. By way of influence on rock drilling methods are classified on mechanical and non-mechanical distinction drilling.

1.2. Oil and gas wells are constructed using percussion drilling.

1.3. By the nature of rock at the bottom distinguish drilling methods are classified on solid and core drilling.

1.4. All drill bits are classified into four types.

Задание 2. Составьте аннотацию текста.

Text 3.

UK oil and gas.

The UK is uniquely positioned as a world-class partner for both upstream and downstream projects in the Oil & Gas industry.

UK companies have an outstanding reputation for innovation and manufacturing excellence, dating back to the industrial revolution. Cutting-edge firms can satisfy practically every aspect of the energy industry supply chain, both upstream and downstream, with innovative world-class, fit-for-purpose solutions.

Over the last 40 years, exploration and development of the hostile deep waters of the North Sea has created an unequalled range of products, services and expertise, which now play a major role in offshore and onshore hydrocarbon developments worldwide. UK companies are often partners of choice for challenging new developments in Oil & Gas prospects across the world.

UK firms have developed a vast range of subsea technology, novel offshore platform floating production systems, compelling software, environmental management and control systems, which are now utilised globally. Energy operators of all sizes exploit UK expertise for reservoir analysis and modelling, innovative downhole tools and techniques for drilling multilateral wells, e-enabled reservoir management systems, advanced communications, process control and measurement and support services. UK firms have managed to extend the life of many oilfields that were previously considered only marginally economic, as well as developing deepwater reserves in hostile waters.

There is also a wealth of groundbreaking technology downstream, covering every facet of UK-designed and developed gas transmission and low and medium pressure distribution technology, advanced metering services, control and instrumentation, network modelling, storage, transportation and allied systems.

UK manufacturers can provide virtually all the necessary technology from vast gas compressors and trenchless pipeline laying systems to the latest cogeneration plants and compressed natural gas vehicles. UK firms are experienced at dealing with demanding national and international regulation, while also satisfying highly competitive commercial requirements.

Задание 1. Определите основную идею текста, используя следующие разговорные формулы:

The main idea of the text is; the text deals with; according to the text; the text is about.

Задание 2. Закончите предложение, с которого можно начать аннотацию текста:

The purpose of this text is to…

Text 4.

History and Development of Petroleum

Petroleum has been known throughout historical time. It was used in mortar, for coating walls and boat hulls, and as a fire weapon in defensive warfare. Native Americans used it in magic and medicine and in making paints. Pioneers bought it from the Native Americans for medicinal use and called it Seneca oil and Genesee oil. In Europe it was scooped from streams or holes in the ground, and in the early 19th century small quantities were made from shale. In 1815 several streets in Prague were lighted with petroleum lamps.

Petroleum seeping out of underground reservoirs has been collected and used for light throughout recorded history. In the 4th century A.D. the Chinese drilled for oil and natural gas, but in the 1850s, oil was still being recovered by skimming it off the tops of ponds. As whale oil became less abundant, producers looked for new ways to extract oil. Edwin Drake dug the first modern oil well in Titusville, Pa, hitting oil at 21.2 m, touching off an oil rush in the area. In 1861 the first oil refinery was set up.

The modern petroleum industry began in 1859, when the American oil pioneer E. L. Drake drilled a producing well on Oil Creek in Pennsylvania at a place that later became Titusville. Many wells were drilled in the region. Kerosene was the chief finished product, and kerosene lamps soon replaced whale oil lamps and candles in general use. Little use other than as lamp fuel was made of petroleum until the development of the gasoline engine and its application to automobiles, trucks, tractors, and airplanes. Today the world is heavily dependent on petroleum for motive power, lubrication, fuel, dyes, drugs, and many synthetics. The widespread use of petroleum has created serious environmental problems. The great quantities that are burned as fuels generate most of the air pollution in industrialized countries, and oil spilled from tankers and offshore wells has polluted oceans and coastlines.

Задание 1. Найдите в тексте ответы на следующие вопросы:

How was petroleum used throughout historical time? Who dug the first modern oil well? When did the modern petroleum industry begin? Kerosene was the chief finished product, was not it? Has the widespread use of petroleum created serious environmental problems?

Задание 2. Составьте аннотацию текста.

Text 5.

Oil production.

Russia ranks third in the world in oil production, after Saudi Arabia and the United States. Estimates place proven and potential oil reserves at 8 to 11 billion tons. Russia's oil production peaked in 1987, then began a decline that continued through 1995. In the latter year, the yield was 741 million barrels, 13 million barrels less than the previous year. Output for the first quarter of 1996 was 182 million barrels.

Wasteful Soviet oil exploration and extraction techniques depleted wells, which often fell far below their potential capacity. Soviet technology was not capable of exploring and extracting as deeply and efficiently as Western technology. These handicaps have been instrumental in Russia's plummeting oil production during the last two decades. In 1994 the number of oil wells drilled was only one-quarter the number drilled in 1983. About two-thirds of Russia's oil comes from Siberia, mostly from huge fields in the northwest part of the region. The main European oil and gas fields are located in the Volga-Ural region, the North Caucasus, and the far north of the Republic of Komi.

Russian oil companies are vertically integrated units that control the entire production process from exploration to transmission. The largest company is Lukoil, which, according to some measurements, is the largest oil company in the world. The dominance of a few large companies has made all stages of petroleum exploitation and sale extremely inefficient. National and local government policies have discouraged individual retailers from establishing independent gasoline storage facilities and stations; therefore, retail gasoline likely will continue to be in very short supply (only 8,900 stations were operating in Russia in 1995). Until January 1995, government policy applied quotas to oil exports, and until July 1996 tariffs were applied to oil exports. Both policies, resulting from the gap between controlled domestic prices and world market prices, aimed at ensuring a sufficient supply of oil to meet domestic demand; both were lifted as the gap narrowed.

The search for new oil deposits has been a primary force in Russia's foreign policy toward states to the south. Russia has staked its claim to the Caspian oil reserves that Western companies are exploring in conjunction with Azerbaijani, Turkmenistani, and Kazakstani state companies. The presence of Western interests and the strong role being played by Iran and Turkey, Russia's traditional regional rivals, have complicated this policy, which aims to achieve maximum benefit from Russia's position on the shore of the north Caspian. Also a source of international controversy is Russia's insistence that Caspian oil flow northward through Russian pipelines rather than westward via new lines built through Georgia and Turkey.

Задание 1. Прокомментируйте следующие тезисы, используя разговорные формулы:

The statement is right (wrong): it should be pointed; it should be noted; according to the text; as a matter of fact; broadly speaking; as far as I know; to my mind; in my opinion.

1.1. Soviet technology was not capable of exploring and extracting as deeply and efficiently as Western technology.

1.2. Russian oil companies are not vertically integrated units.

1.3. The dominance of a few large companies has made all stages of petroleum exploitation and sale extremely inefficient.

1.4. The search for new oil deposits has been a primary force in Russia's foreign policy toward states to the north.

Задание 2. Закончите предложение, с которого можно начать аннотацию текста:

The purpose of this text is to…

Text 6.

Natural gas production.

Russia is also one of the world's largest natural gas producers. Its proven reserves have been estimated at 49 billion cubic meters, or roughly 35 percent of the world's total. Natural gas has also been one of the most successful parts of the Russian economy. In the early 1980s, it replaced oil as the Soviet "growth fuel," offering cheaper extraction and transportation. Although output has dropped in the 1990s, the decline has not been as severe as that for other energy sources or the rest of the economy. Natural gas production peaked in 1991 at 727 million cubic meters, then dropped throughout the early 1990s. But 1995 production, 596 million cubic meters, was an increase from the previous year. After European gas fields in the Volga-Ural region dominated the industry through the 1970s, production shifted to giant fields in Siberia. The Urengoy and Yamburg fields in the West Siberia region are among the most productive; the former is the largest field in the world. Soviet plans called for rapid development of new reserves in the Yamal Peninsula in the Arctic Ocean north of Urengoy, but environmental problems and infrastructure costs slowed development. Hasty construction and poor maintenance have caused chronic breakdowns and accidents in the long pipelines of Russia's natural gas delivery system.

The State Natural Gas Company (Gazprom) has a virtual monopoly over Russia's gas production and transmission. A vertically organized enterprise, the company has been reorganized into a joint-stock company, in which 40 percent of the shares remain under state control. Company employees hold another 15 percent, managers of the company hold 10 percent, and the remaining 35 percent were sold at public auction. Gazpromcontrolsanetworkofregionalproductionassociations.

Задание 1. Расскажите, что нового вы узнали из текста, используя следующие разговорные формулы:

I’d like to say some words about; it’s important to say that; it should be pointed; as is known;

the text is about; the text deals with; the content of the text; it should be noted that; according to the text; the subject of the text is; as a matter of fact; I can add; I’d like to say that; broadly speaking; as far as I know; to my mind; in my opinion.

Задание 2. Составьте аннотацию текста.

Text 7.

Petroleum processing and refining.

Petroleum is a mixture of gaseous, liquid, and solid hydrocarbon compounds that occurs in sedimentary rock deposits throughout the world. In the crude state, petroleum has little value but, when refined, it provides liquid fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, aviation fuel), solvents, heating oil, lubricants, and the distillation residuum asphalt, which is used for highway surfaces and roofing materials.

Crude petroleum (oil) is a mixture of compounds with different boiling temperatures that can be separated into a variety of fractions. Since there is a wide variation in the composition of crude petroleum, the proportions in which the different fractions occur vary with origin. Some crude oils have higher proportions of lower-boiling components, while others have higher proportions of residuum (asphaltic components).

Petroleum processing and refining involves a series of steps by which the original crude oil is converted into products with desired qualities in the amounts dictated by the market. In fact, a refinery is essentially a group of manufacturing plants that vary in number with the variety of products in the mix. Refinery processes must be selected and products manufactured to give a balanced operation; that is, crude oil must be converted into products according to the demand for each. For example, the manufacture of products from the lower-boiling portion of petroleum automatically produces a certain amount of higher-boiling components. If the latter cannot be sold as, say, heavy fuel oil, these products will accumulate until refinery storage facilities are full. To prevent such a situation, the refinery must be flexible and able to change operations as needed. This usually means more processes, such as thermal processes to change excess heavy fuel oil into gasoline with coke as the residual product, or vacuum distillation processes to separate heavy oil into lubricating oil stocks and asphalt.

In a petroleum distillation unit, a tower is used for fractionation. The feedstock of crude oil flows through one or more pipes arranged within a large furnace where it is heated to a temperature at which a predetermined portion of the feed changes into vapor. The heated feed is introduced into a fractional distillation tower where the nonvolatiles or liquid portions pass downward to the bottom of the tower and are pumped away, while the vapors pass upward through the tower and are fractionated into gas oils, kerosene, and naphthas.

Задание 1. Определите основную идею текста, используя следующие разговорные формулы: The main idea of the text is; the text deals with; according to the text; the text is about.

Задание 2. Составьте аннотацию текста.

Text 8.

Processing Natural Gas

Natural gas processing consists of separating all of the various hydrocarbons and fluids from the pure natural gas, to produce what is known as 'pipeline quality' dry natural gas. Major transportation pipelines usually impose restrictions on the make-up of the natural gas that is allowed into the pipeline. That means that before the natural gas can be transported it must be purified. While the ethane, propane, butane, and pentanes must be removed from natural gas, this does not mean that they are all 'waste products'.

In fact, associated hydrocarbons, known as 'natural gas liquids' (NGLs) can be very valuable by-products of natural gas processing. NGLs include ethane, propane, butane, isobutane, and natural gasoline. These NGLs are sold separately and have a variety of different uses; including enhancing oil recovery in oil wells, providing raw materials for oil refineries or petrochemical plants, and as sources of energy.

While some of the needed processing can be accomplished at or near the wellhead (field processing), the complete processing of natural gas takes place at a processing plant, usually located in a natural gas producing region. The extracted natural gas is transported to these processing plants through a network of gathering pipelines, which are small-diameter, low pressure pipes. A complex gathering system can consist of thousands of miles of pipes, interconnecting the processing plant to upwards of 100 wells in the area. In addition to processing done at the wellhead and at centralized processing plants, some final processing is also sometimes accomplished at 'straddle extraction plants'. These plants are located on major pipeline systems. Although the natural gas that arrives at these straddle extraction plants is already of pipeline quality, in certain instances there still exist small quantities of NGLs, which are extracted at the straddle plants.

The actual practice of processing natural gas to pipeline dry gas quality levels can be quite complex, but usually involves four main processes to remove the various impurities: oil and condensate removal; water removal; separation of natural gas liquids; sulfur and carbon dioxide removal.

Задание 1. Передайте содержание текста, используя ответы на следующие вопросы:

What does natural gas processing consist of? What can be very valuable by products of natural gas processing? How is the extracted natural gas transported to processing plant? What are the main processes to remove the various impurities from natural gas?

Задание 2. Закончите предложение, с которого можно начать аннотацию текста:

The purpose of this text is to…

Text 9.

Pipeline transport operation.

Pipeline transport is the transportation of goods through a pipe. Most commonly, liquid and gases are sent, but pneumatic tubes that transport solid capsules using compressed air have also been used. As for gases and liquids, any chemically stable substance can be sent through a pipeline. Therefore sewage, slurry, water, or even beer pipelines exist; but arguably the most important are those transporting oil and natural gas.

When a pipeline is built, the construction project not only covers the civil work to lay the pipeline and build the pump/compressor stations, it also has to cover all the work related to the installation of the field devices that will support remote operation.

Field devices are instrumentation, data gathering units and communication systems. The field Instrumentation includes flow, pressure and temperature gauges/transmitters, and other devices to measure the relevant data required. These instruments are installed along the pipeline on some specific locations, such as injection or delivery stations, pump stations (liquid pipelines) or compressor stations (gas pipelines), and block valve stations.

The information measured by these field instruments is then gathered in local Remote Terminal Units (RTU) that transfer the field data to a central location in real time using communication systems, such as satellite channels, microwave links, or cellular phone connections.

Pipelines are controlled and operated remotely, from what is usually known as The Main Control Room. In this center, all the data related to field measurement is consolidated in one central database. The data is received from multiple RTUs along the pipeline. It is common to find RTUs installed at every station along the pipeline.

The Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) system at the Main Control Room receives all the field data and presents it to the pipeline operator through a set of screens or Human-Machine Interface (HMI is the apparatus which presents process data to a human operator, and through which the human operator controls the process), showing the operational conditions of the pipeline. The operator can monitor the hydraulic conditions of the line, as well as send operational commands (open/close valves, turn on/off compressors or pumps, change setpoints, etc.) through the SCADA system to the field.

To optimize and secure the operation of these assets, some pipeline companies are using what is called Advanced Pipeline Applications , which are software tools installed on top of the SCADA system, that provide extended functionality to perform leak detection, leak location, batch tracking (liquid lines), pig tracking, composition tracking, predictive modeling, look ahead modeling, operator training and more.

Задание 1. Прокомментируйте следующие тезисы, используя разговорные формулы:

The statement is right (wrong): it should be pointed; it should be noted; according to the text; as a matter of fact; broadly speaking; as far as I know; to my mind; in my opinion.

1.1. Pipeline transport is the transportation of goods through a pipe.

1.2. Field devices are not instrumentation, data gathering units and communication systems.

1.3. Pipelines are controlled and operated remotely, from what is usually known as The Main Control Room.

1.4. The operator can’t monitor the hydraulic conditions of the line.

Задание 2. Составьте аннотацию текста.

Text 10.

Environmental engineering.

Environmental engineering is the application of science and engineering principles to improve the natural environment (air, water, and/or land resources), to provide healthy water, air, and land for human habitation (house or home) and for other organisms, and to remediate polluted sites. It involves waste water management and air pollution control, recycling, waste disposal, radiation protection, industrial hygiene, environmental sustainability, and public health issues as well as a knowledge of environmental engineering law. It also includes studies on the environmental impact of proposed construction projects.

Environmental engineers conduct hazardous-waste management studies to evaluate the significance of such hazards, advise on treatment and containment, and develop regulations to prevent mishaps. Environmental engineers also design municipal water supply and industrial wastewater treatment systems as well as address local and worldwide environmental issues such as the effects of acid rain, global warming, ozone depletion, water pollution and air pollution from automobile exhausts and industrial sources. Environmental "civil" engineers focus on hydrology, water resources management, bioremediation, and water treatment plant design. Environmental "chemical" engineers, on the other hand, focus on environmental chemistry, advanced air and water treatment technologies and separation processes.

Environmental engineering is an incredibly broad field which is focused on using scientific principles to improve environmental conditions. Environmental engineers may use their skills to prevent damage to the environment, or to deal with the consequences of such damage.

Numerous fields can be pursued within the larger framework of environmental engineering, including biology, ecology, chemistry, geology, environmental law, public health, chemical engineering, nuclear engineering, civil engineering, and mechanical engineering. As a general rule, environmental engineering requires a bachelor's degree at a minimum, and many employers prefer to see graduate level work from their candidates as well.

Preventative measures include things like waste management, pollution controls, and resource allocations which are designed to ensure that supplies of clean water endure. Environmental engineers may also work on projects like developing ecologically friendly building techniques, green vehicles, and environmentally friendly methods of power generation. Many environmental engineers enjoy working on preventative measures such as these, since they are often at the cutting edge of technology.

Environmental engineering also looks at ways to deal with damage to the environment, like oil spills, acid rain, rampant pollution, and destabilization of fragile ecosystems. Environmental engineers develop techniques to help the Earth recover more quickly from serious environmental problems, ranging from using petrochemical-eating bacteria for cleaning up oil spills to restricting access to threatened wetlands to allow them to stabilize.

Задание 1. Расскажите, что нового вы узнали из текста. Определите основную идею текста. Используйте следующие разговорные формулы:

I’d like to say some words about; it’s important to say that; it should be pointed; as is known; the text is about; the text deals with; the content of the text; it should be noted that; according to the text; the subject of the text is; as a matter of fact; I can add; I’d like to say that; broadly speaking; as far as I know; to my mind; in my opinion.

Задание 2. Составьте аннотацию текста.