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14 Toxicity of Polyphenols Consumed as Food and Nutraceuticals
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Polyphenols: Food, Nutraceutical, and Nanotherapeutic Applications, First Edition. Edited by Mithun Rudrapal.
© 2024 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2024 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
15
Nanodelivery of Food Polyphenols for Nutraceutical Applications
Aamena Yusuf
1
, Tanisha Ambawat
1
, Sneha Dokhale
2
, Shine Devarajan
1
, and
Samiksha Garse
1,
*
1
School of Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, D Y Patil Deemed to be University, Navi Mumbai, Maharashtra, India.
2
B. K. Birla College, Birla College Campus Rd, Kalyan, Maharashtra, India.
* Corresponding author
15.1 Introduction
Polyphenols are plant-based, non-nutrient natural components also termed as secondary metab-
olites. These are included in plant-based daily diets [1]. The substances are generated through
the shikimate/phenylpropanoid and/or polyketide pathways that have several phenolic units
but no nitrogen-based functionalities are referred to as polyphenols [2]. Most plants naturally
contain polyphenols, which have a complex and unique chemical structure resulting in a wide
range of biological properties [3, 4]. According to epidemiological studies and meta-analyses,
consuming diets high in plant polyphenols over the long term may provide some protection
against the advancement of neurological diseases, diabetes, osteoporosis, and cardiovascular
diseases, as shown in Figure 15.1 [3].
Many polyphenolic substances have limited oral bioavailability, which constrains their use in
nutraceuticals. Green bio-based nanocarriers are ideal for encapsulating, storing, and packing
polyphenols, thus enhancing their bioavailability [2, 4, 5].
In a variety of sectors, bio-based polymers have arisen as a viable alternative to petroleum-
based polymers [6]. Proteins are versatile bio-based polymers with different functional qualities
such as emulsification, amphiphilicity, gelation, and foaming [7]. Polysaccharides are also bio-
based polymers with a diverse variety of origins, and their distinctive structure and physiologi-
cal activity make them suitable as ingredients for the creation of a variety of nanocarriers and
the transport of polyphenolic chemicals [8]. Lipid-based nanocarriers are also some of the most
important methods for targeting such transportation in food and nutrition due to their excel-
lent biocompatibility and biodegradability [9]. The introduction of several marketed modified
polyphenol products sets the groundwork for additional study and development of novel poly-
phenol health nutrition products [5]. The label “Nutraceutical” was a blend of “Nutrition” and
“Pharmaceutical”, by Dr. Stephen DeFelice [10]. The definition of a nutraceutical given by
DeFelice is “a food (or part of a food) that provides medical or health benefits, including disease
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15.2 Polyphenols: Classification, Health Benefits, Bioavailability 313
prevention and treatment” [11]. Any food-sourced
product that offers notable wellness advantages in
addition to the essential nutritional content
included in meals is referred to as a nutraceutical.
Nutraceuticals are grouped into four major catego-
ries, as shown in Figure 15.2.
Hippocrates once said, “Let food be your medi-
cine”; this is the fundamental tenet of nutraceuti-
cals. Nutraceuticals signaled a new age in food
health and medicine, as people become more mind-
ful of the relationship between critical illnesses and
eating behavior [11]. Natural honey is one of the
best nutraceutical products because it contains
antioxidants and enzymes that are necessary for
digestion [12]. Because of their potential to increase
bioavailability, component solubility, and stability,
these have been widely employed in nanotechnol-
ogy [13]. Nanotechnology is enhancing the whole
industry of food, from production to processing,
storage, and consumption. Nanoparticles (NPs) for
edible delivery are physiologically consistent small
materials ranging in size from 1 nm to 100 nm and
they are generated using various ways that produce
important physio-chemical properties. These fea-
tures of NPs make them useful in an array of
domains [13]. This chapter discusses the nanodeliv-
ery of food polyphenols for nutraceuticals with
improved solubility, bioavailability, efficiency,
encapsulation, and prolonged and focused drug
delivery.
15.2 Polyphenols: Classification, Health Benefits, Bioavailability
Polyphenols are phenolic hydroxyl group-containing organic molecules that are found abundantly
in natural flora. They have been shown to benefit human health immensely because of their anti-
oxidant properties, adherence affinity, and anticancer properties. They also show great promise in
the bioimaging, biomedical, and therapeutic industry by the preparation and modification of
nanoassemblies [4, 14]. These compounds, which are classified as phenolic acids, flavonoids,
anthocyanins, and tannins, possess complicated structures, and use phenolic rings as their core
monomer. Polyphenols from tea and coffee are bioavailable; approximately 30% of these com-
pounds are absorbed in circulation in humans, and regular consumption of these compounds
results in improvements in biomarkers for oxidative stress [4, 14, 15]. Grosso revealed that 75% of
polyphenols come from beverage and chocolate consumption in a population-specific analysis
within Poland [16].
Figure 15.1 Health benefits of polyphenols.
Figure 15.2 Classification of nutraceuticals.
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15 Nanodelivery of Food Polyphenols for Nutraceutical Applications
314
15.2.1 Classification of Polyphenols
Food polyphenols are a diverse group of organic substances from the kingdom Plantae, the major-
ity of which have two phenyl rings and one or more hydroxyl groups [17]. The classification of the
same is given in Figure 15.3. There are currently 8,000 polyphenolic chemicals known, and more
than 4,000 of them are flavonoids [18]. Flavonoids and phenolic acids are the two main classes of
the diverse collection of phenolic chemicals known as polyphenols; phenolic acids are split into
two types, hydroxycinnamic and hydroxybenzoic acids. Flavonoids are colored chemicals that are
further divided into flavones, flavanols, flavanones, flavonols, and isoflavones [19]. They can be
found either unconjugated (as an aglycone) or conjugated with substances, including lipids, glu-
cose, carboxylic acid, amines, and organic acids. Polyphenols are divided into phenolic acids,
phenolic aldehydes (vanillin, salicylaldehyde, syringaldehyde, etc.), flavonoids, iso-flavonoids,
tannins (hydrolyzable and condensed tannins), lignans, and lignins based on the structural vari-
ation [20, 21].
Dietary polyphenols exhibit a wide variety of structural types, from straightforward compounds
like monomers and oligomers, to complex polymers with high densities. High-molecular-weight
(>500) structures are referred to as tannins because of their capacity to interact with proteins.
Condensed tannins stand out among their contribution to food quality and widespread occurrence
in flora [18].
However, because of their extremely unstable nature, most phenolic compounds are quickly
converted into their reaction products when the plant cells are in disarray. Therefore, it is difficult
FOOD POLYPHENOLS
Flavonoids
Flavones
Isoflavones
Flavonols
Proanthocyanidins
Flavanones
Phenolic Acids
Hydrocinnamic
Acids
Hydroxybenzioc
Acid
Lignin
Resveratrol
Stilbenes
Matairesinol
Secoisolariciresinol
Figure 15.3 Classification of food polyphenols.
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15.2 Polyphenols: Classification, Health Benefits, Bioavailability 315
to incorporate food polyphenols into food compositions [19, 22]. Black tea has a well-established
history of producing certain tannin-like substances via enzymatic oxidation. It has been shown
that several chemical processes involving anthocyanins or flavanols occur during the aging of red
wine [17, 19, 21–25].
15.2.1.1 Phenolic Acids
Phenolics are classified as aromatic rings with OH groups connected as non-flavonoid polyphe-
nols. Benzoic acid, which has seven carbon atoms, and cinnamic acid, which has nine carbon
atoms, are the two main characteristics that set phenolic acids apart [17]. Because of their multiple
health benefits for humans, including their anti-inflammatory, anticancer, and antimicrobial qual-
ities, they are essential dietary components [23].
15.2.1.2 Flavonoids
Flavonoids are a component of the vibrant colors found in herbs, fruits, and vegetables [26]. They
can be further separated into flavonones, flavones, flavonols, flavan-3-ols, anthocyanidins, and
isoflavones depending on the variation in the C-ring [27]. Because of the pattern and intensity of
modifications of hydroxyl groups, methoxy groups, and glycan molecules, each of these subgroups
differs in certain ways. Flavonoids include substances such as quercetin, naringenin, catechin,
daidzein, and cyanidin-glucoside [28, 29]. They can exist in several modified forms in addition to
being free glycosidic conjugates and aglycones [30–32]. Additional categories of flavonoids include
flavones, flavonols, flavonones, isoflavones, and anthocyanins [33].
Flavanones are the most therapeutically important flavonoids that are present in all citrus fruits.
Hesperiden, narigenin, and eriodictyol are examples of a few flavonones. Anthocyanins are the
most significant subclass of flavonoids and naturally occurring pigments [34–36]. They are two
phenyl benzopyrylium salts that have had their polyhydroxy and polymethoxy derivatives glyco-
sylated. Black currants, red and merlot grapes, as well as raspberries, cranberries, strawberries,
blueberries, and bilberries all have them in the outermost layers. They could potentially replace
synthetic dyes and natural colors in the food companies [34–46].
15.2.1.3 Stilbenes
The non-flavonoid class of stilbenes comprises two phenyl rings bridged by a two-carbon methyl-
ene group. They are free isomers (cis and trans), with two aromatic rings, called A and B, in glyco-
sylated forms. Two hydroxyl groups are present at the m-position of ring A, whereas methoxy and
hydroxyl groups are substituted at several locations in ring B [47]. Stilbenes, such as resveratrol,
are often produced by berries, grapes, and nuts [48].
15.2.1.4 Lignans and Lignins
Another non-flavonoid molecule is lignan, which is made up of two C6–C3 units linked together
at positions 8 and 8′. Because the lignan C9 and C9′ positions are substituted in a variety of ways,
they have a wide range of structural forms categorized such as dibenzylbutane, furan, and arylte-
tralin [47]. Pulses, seeds, and vegetable oils are the principal sources of lignans because they lack
an abundance of glycosylated structures. Lignin is an aromatic biopolymer created when peroxi-
dase enzymes oxidize p-hydroxycinnamyl alcohol monomers in a phenolic reaction [49].
15.2.1.5 Tannins
Tannins are a class of high molecular weight, water-soluble phenolics. They can also be separated
into condensed tannins and hydrolyzable tannins. Galltannins and ellagitannins are two types of
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15 Nanodelivery of Food Polyphenols for Nutraceutical Applications
316
hydrolyzable tannins. Phlorotannin, a kind of tannin that makes up 25% of the subcellular struc-
ture of brown algae, has recently attracted interest from the food, feed, and pharmaceutical indus-
tries [50]. As functional molecules with a variety of anti-activities towards cancer, microbes,
hypertensive, diabetic, and inflammatory effects, phlorotannins have shown a lot of promise [51].
These phenolic compounds could be exploited as antioxidants in the food industry because they
have excellent superoxide and free radical scavenging capabilities. They inhibit lipase in the pan-
creas that is responsible for the breakdown of dietary fats, and was eventually used as a weight loss
component [52].
15.2.2 Health Benefits
Polyphenols are secondary metabolites present in the kingdom Plantae. They provide significant
health advantages because of their immunomodulatory, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and
antioxidant capabilities [1, 2]. Polyphenols found in fruits, vegetables, tea, cocoa, and other foods
are good for human health. For instance, there is a significant link between cocoa flavan-3-ols and
a reduced risk of diabetes, myocardial infarction, and stroke. Additionally, dietary polyphenols
help reduce lipid profiles, bodily inflammation, insulin resistance, and blood pressure [4, 5].
Resveratrol, a stilbene, and the flavonoid quercetin have been connected to cardiovascular health.
It is possible that the capacity of dietary polyphenols has therapeutic effects that stem from a two-
way relationship with the gut microbiota. This is mostly because polyphenols are known to
improve human health by changing the composition of the gut microbiota [19]. Polyphenols are
transformed into bioactive molecules with therapeutic benefits by the gut flora. In this chapter, we
go through polyphenols’ antioxidant, anticytotoxicity, anti-inflammatory, antihypertensive, and
antidiabetic properties [21].
15.2.2.1 Antioxidant Activity
Polyphenols are functional and bioactive phytochemicals that have stirred interest from various
scientists, nutritionists, and consumers because of their health benefits. One such health benefit is
their antioxidant property. Typically, oxidative stress is induced by low levels of antioxidant
synthesis or high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as OH radicals and H
2
O
2
, during
various metabolic processes leading to chemical reactions triggering cell and tissue damage
[53–55]. Moreover, diseases like atherosclerosis, inflammation, cancer, diabetes, arthritis, and
even neurological disorders are caused by oxidative damage to cells [54–56]. Utilizing dietary plant
polyphenols and other naturally occurring antioxidants from plant-based foods can help the body
fight off oxidative stress and its harmful effects. Because of their essential role in disease preven-
tion, these phytochemicals rank among the most important natural antioxidants used by humans [57].
Because of their antioxidant properties and ability to scavenge ROS, phenolic compounds have the
potential to both treat and prevent several degenerative disorders [53]. According to research, eat-
ing foods high in polyphenols, such as fish and other seafood, which are natural antioxidants, can
help prevent lipid oxidation as well as morbidity brought on by degenerative diseases [58, 59].
Another important factor influencing the antioxidant capabilities of these bioactive substances is
the amount and position of the hydroxyl groups in phenols [60]. This group has a conjugation
impact leading to reduction in the hydrogen ion’s binding capacity [53]. Therefore, free radical
generation can be stopped by phenolic substances. The free radicals receive an electron transfer
through this mechanism, and after the radicals are neutralized, they become more stable. Thus,
the domino effect will be broken [17]. However, there is a direct correlation between the class of
plant species chosen and the kind of solvent used in the extraction processes and the potential
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15.2 Polyphenols: Classification, Health Benefits, Bioavailability 317
antioxidant activity of phenolic compounds [61]. By using several mechanistic pathways, the poly-
phenols can exhibit antioxidant actions that reduce the generation of ROS [62]. According to
research, polyphenols can interact with ROS by giving unpaired electrons to free radicals or hydro-
gen atoms, which in turn produces stable phenolic oxygen radicals. Therefore, these bioactive
substances can remove the byproducts of free radicals [53]. Polyphenols, including tocopherols
and flavonoids, are typically regarded as important main antioxidant components. By using elec-
tron transfer processes, their aromatic amines can prevent autoxidation [63].
15.2.2.2 Antihypertensive Activity
Although hypertension is one of the major global causes of cardiovascular illnesses, its origins are
not well understood with no overt symptoms [63, 64]. To avoid the adverse effects of hypertension,
prevention and treatment have become essential. Dietary modifications are the main strategy for
controlling high blood pressure. The most effective non-pharmacological treatments include
reducing sodium intake, adding potassium supplements, increasing physical activity, and losing
weight [65]. Receptor blockers, angiotensin II receptor antagonists (ARBs), angiotensin-trans-
ferase inhibitors, calcium antagonists, and diuretics are only a few of the synthetic and chemical
drugs that the World Health Organization (WHO) prescribes for the treatment of hypertension
[66]. Although these medications have an efficient antihypertensive effect, they can also cause
vertigo, coughing, ankle edema, high blood cholesterol levels, and sodium and water retention.
Furthermore, these medications cannot be used for a long period to treat artery illness or reduce
the symptoms of hypertension [66, 67]. Endothelial dysfunction has reportedly been identified as
one of the symptoms of hypertension disease. Thus, the combination of endothelium-dependent
vasodilatation with oxidative damage serves as a defining characteristic of endothelial dysfunc-
tion. In actuality, this dysfunction is discovered prior to changes in the composition or texture of
the artery walls, and as a result, this dysfunctional state leads to the onset and development of
cardiovascular disorders [67, 68]. Several studies have confirmed that phenolic compounds and
their derivatives can enhance the performance of vascular endothelial cells through numerous
methods, including by inhibiting the production of pro-oxidant enzymes [68]. For example, the
COXs and NADPH oxidase may aid in enhancing endothelial function, slowing the aging of the
vascular system, and preventing hypertension [69]. Additionally, the phenolic compounds can
help lower the blood pressure by activating the mTORC2-Rictor survival pathway and suppressing
the production of mTOR signaling proteins [70]. Additionally, multiple research studies [71–74]
suggest that polyphenols may reduce the activation of the angiotensin system, and increase
endothelial relaxation by modifying EDH, oxidative stress, and inflammatory response in order to
enhance the angiotensin system and generate the vasodilation effect [69, 71, 73, 74]. Because of
their role in lowering systolic blood pressure in spontaneously hypertensive rats, polyphenols and
their derivatives have been shown to have a significant antihypertensive effect in other in vivo
research studies [75, 76]. Additionally, polyphenols effectively lower blood pressure through a
variety of methods of action. Polyphenol therapy for hypertension has been demonstrated to
improve endothelial function and relax vascular tissues by inhibiting ACE and related pathways
[64]. It has been shown that polyphenols can reduce the activity of metalloproteinases, especially
those that cause hypertension [64, 77].
15.2.2.3 Antimicrobial Activity
Microorganisms are to blame for several diseases and fatalities. However, overuse of synthetic
medications has increased the prevalence of resistant pathogenic forms of bacteria as well as
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