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7 Functionalization of Food Polyphenols for Nanodeliveries
148
of Listeria monocytogenes and Campylobacter jejuni, as well as Staphylococcus aureus and
Escherichia coli. Gallic acid encapsulating materials can be used to package fresh pork with a
longer shelf life, as well as broiler carcasses.
Additionally, meat products include saturated fatty acids, which in the presence of oxygen, can lead
to lipid oxidation and reduce the quality of meat products. Rancidity in the taste and odor of meat is
caused by lipid oxidation [63]. The high concentration and makeup of unsaturated fatty acids have a
significant impact on how easily lipids oxidize. The grinding operation or another procedure that
destroys the cell tissue and releases ferrous iron and heme components cause lipid oxidation to acceler-
ate. Gallic oil is an example of active packaging that contains phenolics and can function as an oxygen
scavenger to stop the oxidation of lipids in meat products. The polypropylene-encapsulated carvacrol
and thymol demonstrated a 30% inhibition for the DPPH radical assay in the fatty food simulants. In
active packaging that contains olive leaf extract encapsulated by gelatin/tragant gum that release phe-
nolics for two months, oxidative responses in sheep meat burgers were diminished [63].
7.4.4.3 Cheese Packaging
Considering the microbiological, physical, and biochemical changes in cheese during storage, an ideal
packaging technique for cheese is needed. The cheese’s aroma, flavor, and texture are affected by vari-
ations in water activity, fat content, salt content, and microbiological growth. Additional elements that
affect the shelf-life include temperature, oxygen, carbon dioxide, concentration, light, and humidity.
Oxidative stress is introduced by light, and oxidation reactions are introduced by oxygen. The two con-
taminants in cheese that are most isolated are Penicillium and Geotrichum candidum [64]. As a result,
most cheese products are wrapped in antimicrobial and antioxidant coatings. The encapsulating mate-
rials and the foods are in direct contact when using the wrapping methods. In this instance, the plastic
materials contain phenolics that may migrate from the wrapping materials to the food or are released
from them. To prevent oxidation or microbial contamination during storage, foods are coated com-
pletely. Zein nanofibers infused with essential oils suppress bacteria growth until Day 7, showing a
continuous release of bioactivity that results in longer-lasting antibacterial efficacy.
Cheese can be directly consumed with edible film material because the edible coating serves as
active packing. The ability of edible films to slowly release phenolics that remain on the surface,
maintaining antibacterial action for an extended period, makes them useful among these strate-
gies. In kashar cheese, coatings with grape seed oil that were encased in polyvinyl acid nanofibers
prevented the formation of all yeast and mold [65]. Zein nanofibers with clove essential oil are
excellent at suppressing E. coli and L. monocytogenes. The integrity of the bacteria developing in
the cheese is disrupted when phenolics are released sustainably from the film material and they
interact with the cell membrane of pathogenic microorganisms.
Edible coatings also have an impact on pH, titratable acidity, and moisture content, in addition
to microorganisms, which in turn inhibits microbial development and oxidation. We might infer
that the cheese’s antibacterial and antioxidant properties are gradually lost because of the pheno-
lics-loaded packaging and coating material [65].
7.4.5 Toxicity of Nanomaterial and Polyphenols
It is important to weigh the potential risks of this application against the advantages of nanotech-
nology. Although there is still no proof that polyphenol-loaded nanoparticles pose a health danger,
the risk evaluation of the nanomaterials used to encapsulate them, such as nanoscale silver, zinc
oxide, or silicon dioxide, is well known. Alternatively, along with their health advantages, the
potential toxicity of polyphenols has been noted in literature [66].
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7. 4 Role of Polyphenol-loaded Nanoparticles in Food Processing and Therapeutic Applications 149
7.4.5.1 Toxicity of Nanomaterials
The term “nanomaterial” primarily considers the nanoparticle’s size, ignoring potentially danger
ous traits. The study of nanotoxicology focuses on the negative outcomes of exposure to nanoparticles
with hazard potential. Particle size, surface area and reactivity, crystal structure, aggregation potential,
composition/surface coatings, synthesis and preparation changes, and sample purity are
the main physicochemical characteristics of nanoparticles that determine toxicity.
The use of engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) in food packaging materials, such as nanoscale silver,
silanated silicon dioxide, titanium dioxide, iron oxide, or zinc oxide, as well as the possibility of their
migration into food, are of concern. As recently reviewed by Enescu et al. [66], ambient factors, food type,
packing material features, the position of the ENPs in the packaging materials and their interactions,
and contact time, all affect migration, in addition to the physicochemical qualities of ENPs. Additionally,
the authors provided a summary of the rules that are now in place regarding active food and beverage
packaging, as well as the norms, methodologies, and analytical methods used to track the general and
targeted migration of ENPs and assess any potential health risks.
These physicochemical characteristics have the potential to induce pro-oxidant conditions in cells, which
can result in the production of free radicals, inflammation, or even cell death [66]. Numerous in vivo and in
vitro investigations revealed that nanoparticle exposure may impact epigenetic processes, such as
methylation of DNA, upgradation of histone, and interference of RNA interference, and it is unquestionably
possible for nanoparticles to harm DNA. According to some research, the size of gold nanoparticles has the
greatest impact on their cytotoxicity [67]. Because these particles are taken in by cells through pores,
another study on silver nanoparticles highlighted the importance of size. Manickam et al. provided a list of
some of the most significant silver nanoparticles and genotoxicity reactions. Most of the research
demonstrating nanoparticle toxicity is related to their use in pharmacology and medicine; however, the
dangers associated with food ingestion have not been sufficiently investigated [68].
It raises questions about whether nanoparticles require unique regulatory frameworks because
substances that are normally safe for humans may become harmful when they are made smaller. A
summary of the laws governing the use of nanomaterials in the EU and certain non-EU nations has
been published [69]. Because of the lack of sufficient scientific data, the biggest uncertainties relate to
the toxicity, behavior, and biosorption of nanomaterials.
This must be resolved, and research on risk-and-exposure assessments involving the use of
nanomaterials must be conducted [68]. Guidelines for the risk assessment on this subject have been
released by the European Food Safety Authority. This advice is the result of a thorough modification of
the earlier version regarding nano-specific details. It makes the argument that the current definition of
an engineered nanomaterial should not set the parameters for risk assessment, which also considers other
types of materials, and it emphasizes the significance of future research to close any gaps and conduct
an accurate assessment of the safety of nanomaterials.
7.4.5.2 Toxicity of Polyphenols
Under certain circumstances, polyphenols can exhibit pro-oxidant behavior, resulting in the formation of
ROS that can harm DNA, lipids, and other biomolecules. The biological activity of polyphenols is primarily
related to their capacity to chelate metals and scavenge free radicals [70]. Numerous variables, including the
presence of redox-active substances, the pH of biological tissues, and solubility properties, affect antioxidant
and pro-oxidant activity. Drinking large amounts of tea causes an imbalance in the antioxidant and pro-
oxidant behavior of tea flavonoids, which has negative effects on human health. Examples include the
hepatotoxicity of green tea catechins, the reduction of dietary iron absorption in the intestine, the
precipitation of digestive enzymes by black tea tannins, and the reduction of lipase activity by oolong tea
polyphenols [70].
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7 Functionalization of Food Polyphenols for Nanodeliveries
150
Infusions of green tea and other beverages containing green tea catechins are generally safe to
consume; however, taking EGCG as a food supplement in doses equal to or greater than 500 mg/
day for four months or longer significantly raises serum transaminases in human blood, which is
a sign of liver damage.
In addition to pro-oxidant action, polyphenol molecules are considered complex components
that can be harmful to human health. Some elements, such as Fe, Mg, and Mn, can be bound by
phenolic acids, which can result in a disorder of element-dependent metabolic pathways and
decrease the elements’ absorption in the gastrointestinal tract and, consequently, their content in
blood and tissue [71]. Although nanoparticles have numerous possible uses in the food industry
and are not consistent in terms of dangers, the overall conclusion is that they must first undergo
rigorous testing before being used. Additionally, consuming polyphenols in large doses over an
extended period can harm humans. There is evidence that the coadministration of polyphenols
(quercetin) with ENPs (silver nanoparticles) reduces the negative effects of ENPs such as cytotox-
icity and oxidative stress. The toxicity of polyphenols encapsulated as nanoparticles have not yet
been described. However, more research should be conducted to quantify the possible hazardous
consequences of polyphenol-loaded nanoparticles [68–71].
7.5 Conclusion
The functional characteristics, benefits, and encapsulating techniques of phenolics in food prod-
ucts were examined in this chapter. Even the release of phenolics from meals can be managed and
sustained to improve the quality of the goods if phenolics are not stable enough after processing.
The incorporation of phenolics into capsules holds promise for use in active food packaging, food
processing, and food fortification. Food fortification with encapsulated phytochemicals considers
several variables, including polyphenol safety, interactions with food components, and sensory
impacts.
To extend the shelf life of food items, encapsulated polyphenols have been used in the food pro-
cessing of dairy, beverages, bakery, and meat goods. Most perishable food goods are packaged
using active packaging technologies, including headspace packaging, coating, and wrapping,
which contain encapsulated phenolics to prevent lipid oxidation, discoloration, and microbial
deterioration. To meet customer demands for fresh and healthy food items and to reduce global
food waste, encapsulated phenolics are promising applications in the food business.
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Polyphenols: Food, Nutraceutical, and Nanotherapeutic Applications, First Edition. Edited by Mithun Rudrapal.
© 2024 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Published 2024 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
8
Nanodeliveries of Food Polyphenols as Nutraceuticals
Santwana Palai
1,*
and Mithun Rudrapal
2
1
Department of Veterinary Pharmacology & Toxicology, College of Veterinary Science and Animal Husbandry, Odisha University of
Agriculture & Technology, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
2
Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Vignan’s Foundation for Science,
Technology & Research, Guntur, India
* Corresponding author
8.1 Introduction
Natural chemicals are still the most important primary sources of bioactives because synthetic
medicinal chemistry have not yet generated many alternatives for natural compounds. As a result,
the search for new pharmacophores and active chemicals continues [1]. Polyphenols are a diverse
group of secondary phytonutrients or metabolites found in all diets. These are antioxidants or
dietary bioactives derived from plant-based diets that have antioxidant properties [2]. However,
some phytochemicals have low solubility, resulting in poor bioavailability. Encapsulating such
bioactive compounds in an appropriate carrier helps to increase their bioavailability to change the
pharmacokinetics and biodistribution. Bioactive nanoencapsulation is actively revolutionizing the
field of medicine delivery. The medication therapeutic index increases with the use of controlled
drug delivery systems, causing localization to specific tissues [3].
New medical breakthroughs have indicated the commercialization potential of nanoparticle-
based medicinal therapies. Natural dietary mediators have demonstrated advantages in healthcare
because anticancer and antidiabetic properties have lately emerged as an active component of
nutraceuticals [4]. Because of the increased interest in traditional medicines among scientists and
academics, the World Health Organization has developed a plan to address traditional medicine
apprehensions worldwide [5]. Current advances in nutraceutical nanoencapsulation can mini-
mize their limitations while optimizing their health benefits [6]. This chapter focuses on food
polyphenols, their benefits, and nutraceutical nanocarriers that can be developed as nanoscale
nutraceuticals or functional foods.
8.1.1 Polyphenols in Food
Polyphenol is not a chemical word; instead, it refers to flavonoids, catechins, tannins, and phe-
nolic acids, as well as their chemically modified or polymerized derivatives. Flavanols, flavanones,
flavonols, hydroxycinnamic acids, and anthocyanins are important classes of polyphenols in the
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8 Nanodeliveries of Food Polyphenols as Nutraceuticals
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diet [7]. These catechins, flavonoids, anthocyanins, and phenolic acids make up most dietary
polyphenols [8] (Table 8.1).
8.1.2 Nutraceuticals
Nutraceuticals are a blend of pharmaceuticals and nutrition. Food or food components provide
nutritious and therapeutic aids to the body such as by nutrients, resisting various diseases, and
assisting in the treatment of specific conditions [18]. Medical professionals anticipated developing
meals that may be used as medicine to prevent and treat ailments. As a result, dietary comple-
ments, functional beverages, and functional foods, were introduced as dietary supplements provid-
ing protein, mineral, vitamin, herbal, or plant extracts [19].
Probiotics and omega fatty acid foods are examples of functional meals and beverages, while
functional brews include sports drinks, fortified juices, and energy drinks. Nutraceutical examples
include dietary supplements, multifunctional food, and functional food. Functional foods are basic
foods in that they provide nourishment; however, they have been augmented with specific con-
stituents that aid in the maintenance of a healthy body [20].
Recent advancements in food technology have paved the path to functional foods that are made
solely for the benefit of human health. The basic operations considered are identification, separa-
tion, purification, and characterization of the food properties such as nutritional content and
medicinal value.
The basic dietary elements required for the body’s optimal function and average energy require-
ments are carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids [21]. Vitamins have nutritional effects and are not
generally changed by the human body. Consequently, they should be ingested for healthy bodily
function. Nutraceuticals are small food components that aid the body in battling certain chronic
disorders [4].
Table 8.1 Types of polyphenols in foods and drinks.
Sl.
No.
Chemical Class Rich Sources Examples References
1 Ohenolic acids (benzoic
acid & cinnamic acid
derivatives)
Red fruits, coffee, chicory,
black radish, onions,
artichoke, plum, pears
Caffeic, p-coumaric,
ferulic, sinapic acids
[9]
2 Flavonoids
A Flavanols Tea, cocoa, apple, broad
beans
Quercetin,
kaempferol
[10]
B Flavanones Citrus fruits like orange Hesperidin,
naringenin, taxifolin
[11]
C Flavones Dye, vegetables Luteolin [12]
D Flavonols Tea, apples, onions Catechins [13]
E Anthocyanins Berry fruits, in fruit and
vegetables
Cyanidin colored
polyphenols
[14]
F Isoflavones Soy or soy-based products Genistein [15]
3 Stilbenes Grapes, red wine Resveratrol [16]
4 Lignans Linseed, flaxseed Secoisolariciresinol [17]
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8.2 Food Polyphenols 157
A nutraceutical product’s efficacy is determined by its bioavailability. In nutritional terms, bioavail-
ability implies partially available nutrients in food; however, in pharmacological terms, it is the rate
and extent of a drug that reaches its site of action. Bioavailability has increased as the use of nutraceu-
ticals as preventative medicine has become a major concern for health-care regulators and manufac-
turers [22]. Various parameters, such as inadequate gastric time, lesser solubility, gut permeability,
and variability in food, are limiting the health advantage of nutraceuticals when administered orally
[23]. Further obstacles, including chemical instability and crystallization, must be overcome before
these bioactive compounds can be used in commercial food items, in addition to their limited bioavail-
ability and poor water solubility [24]. Patenting novel delivery technologies, such as nanotechnolo-
gies, have grown in popularity as a means of boosting the efficacy of nutraceuticals.
8.1.3 Nanodelivery
Nanotechnology has blossomed in almost every industry, with significant impact to the health and
nutrition industries. Encapsulation of dynamic food ingredients in nanoform drug transfer systems
is a significant use in nutrition and food. The fundamental concepts of nanotechnology are followed
in nutraceutical nanoformulations. Most nanotechnology platforms are employed to develop nutra-
ceutical delivery strategies with low water solubility [25]. By resolving the limitations associated
with bioactives, the technology has a high commercialization potential, and thus multifold growth
in the next few years is expected. However, before incorporating these newly developed nanoscale
delivery techniques into profitable food harvests, they must be safe. A variety of desirable qualities
of nanoscale delivery methods must be addressed. When sized to the nanoscale, they will act
inversely in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract compared with regularly scaled particulate matter [26].
If the nanoscale delivery method digestion is the same as typical particulate matter, it cannot be
more harmful; otherwise, toxicity concerns may develop. It is vital to investigate the toxicity poten-
tial of these food-grade nanoscale delivery devices to confirm their safety. It is preferable to build
these delivery systems with food-grade materials. These nanoscale devices must be cost effective,
sturdy enough to resist storage conditions, and resilient enough to be used in real world applica-
tions [27]. Additionally, the delivery method should be physically and chemically resistant to
external strains while maintaining useful qualities. The distribution method must be capable of
boosting labile bioactive nutrient stomach stability [28] and it maintaining a continuous amount
in the systemic blood flow. An extremely lipophilic medication can increase lymphatic mobility
and increase the stomach retention time [29].
The nanoparticles are made of lipids, carbohydrates, or proteins, mostly with various bioactive
compounds [30]. The incorporation of nanotechnologies for nutraceutical substances improves
the oral absorption and bioavailability of phenolic compounds, increasing its nutraceutical effect.
Various nutraceutical nanodelivery systems are explored in this article for food polyphenols.
8.2 Food Polyphenols
8.2.1 Classification of Food Polyphenols
Food polyphenols are created in a wide range of foods and have piqued the interest of scientists
because of their anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anticancer actions. Polyphenols are benzene
ring-structured molecules with two or more phenolic hydroxyl groups that are divided as phenolic
acids or flavonoids based on their physical properties [31].
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