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1 Food Polyphenols
8
Naringenin
H
H
H
O
O
O
O
O
Eriodictyol
H
H
H
H
O
O
O
O
O
O
Isoflavones
O
O
● Offers protection
against age-related
diseases including
cardiovascular dis-
ease, osteoporosis,
hormone-dependent
cancer, and loss of
cognitive function
through weak oes-
trogenic action and
antioxidant activity.
● Protects against
chronic diseases like
cancer, osteoporo-
sis, and ischemic
heart disease and
inhibits carcinogen-
esis and photo-
carcinogenesis via
antioxidant and
antiproliferative
effects.
● Effective in
reducing erythema
formation induced
by ultraviolet
radiation.
● Genistein reduces
the risk of cardio-
vascular disease,
osteoporosis, and
postmenopausal
symptoms such as
hot flashes and vagi-
nal dryness.
Soy beans, green
beans, mung
beans, soy flour,
tofu, miso,
tempeh, soy
milk
[30, 31]
(Continued)
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1.2 Classification, Sources, and Functions 9
Daidzein
O
O
O
O
H
H
Genistein
O
O
O
O
O
H
H
H
Glycitein
H
H
O
O
O
O
O
Monomeric flavanols
Catechin
H
H
H
H
O
O
O
H
O
O
O
● Provides benefits to
inflammatory bowel
disease by regulating
the infiltration and
proliferation of
immune-related cells
including neutrophils,
colonic epithelial cells,
macrophages, and T
lymphocytes.
● Promotes gut health
and improves plasma
antioxidant activity,
brachial artery dilation,
fat oxidation, and
resistance of low-
density lipoproteins to
oxidation.
Chocolate,
Beans,
Apricot,
cherry,
grape,
peach,
blackberry,
apple,
green tea,
black tea,
red wine,
cider
[32]
Epicatechin
H
H
H
H
O
O
O
H
O
O
O
(Continued)
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1 Food Polyphenols
10
1.2.3 Anthocyanidins, Lignans, Hydrolysable Tannins, and Condensed Tannins
Anthocyanins
O
+
● Has antidiabetic,
anticancer,
anti-
inflammatory,
antimicrobial,
and anti-obesity
effects, as well as
neuroprotective
and
cardiovascular
disease revention
properties.
Blackberry, black
currant,
blueberry, black
grape, cherry,
rhubarb,
strawberry, red
wine, plum red,
red cabbage,
cranberry,
raspberry, apples,
peaches plums;
vegetables, such
as red cabbage
and red onions,
kidney beans,
pomegranates,
eggplant
[33–36]
Cyanidin
H
H
H
H
H
O
O
O
O
O
O
Pelargonidin
H
H
H
H
O
O
O
O
O
1.3 Health Benefits and Antioxidant Properties of Polyphenols
1.3.1 Mechanism of Action for Health Benefits
Polyphenols, particularly dietary polyphenols, are plant-derived molecules that have various bio-
logical activities in humans. These activities include antioxidant and radical scavenging, modula-
tion of inflammation and human enzymes, and binding to nuclear receptors. [37]
The health benefits of dietary polyphenols are mainly anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-
proliferative, or they follow epigenetic regulation. The mechanisms of action of polyphenols
involve their ability to bind to enzymes and modulate them, acting as free radical scavengers that
prevent the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) or remove them before they damaging vital
components of the cell [23].
Cardiovascular Disease
Grape skins and seeds are rich in antioxidants including resveratrol, quercetin, catechin, and proantho-
cyanidin, which can prevent platelet aggregation and shield low-density lipoproteins from oxidation
[38]. Wine and alcohol polyphenols can be used in the treatment of myocardial ischemia reperfusion
injury, although their respective mechanisms of cardio protection work in different ways.
If absorbed into the blood, flavonols may prevent cardiovascular disease as they are powerful
antioxidants with the potential to shield biological macromolecules from oxidative damage in vivo
[39]. In addition to polyphenols increasing high density lipoprotein and enhancing endothelial
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1.3 Health Benefits and Antioxidant Properties of Polyphenols 11
function, polyphenols may also have antioxidant, antiplatelet, and anti-inflammatory effects that
protect against cardiovascular diseases [40]. By preferentially inhibiting the activity of cyclooxyge-
nase 1 (COX 1), which produces thromboxane A2, an inducer of platelet aggregation and vasocon-
strictor, resveratrol, a wine polyphenol, reduces platelet aggregation [40].
Resveratrol, a phytochemical, inhibits the platelet aggregation by decreasing the interaction of
platelets with collagen and thrombin, as studied with different in vitro models [41]. Clearly, res-
veratrol influences a variety of molecular functions to influence the cardiovascular system. The
ability of phytoalexins to prevent apoptosis is one of their most intriguing low concentration
actions. Red wine contains a polyphenol fraction that has a cardioprotective effect of resveratrol,
and an ischemia reperfusion injury acts as an efficient scavenger of oxyen free radicals [42].
Diabetes Milletus
Diabetes and cardiovascular disease are both at risk because of insulin resistance, a defining char-
acteristic of metabolic disorders. A similar study revealed that polyphenols like resveratrol and
epigallocatechin-3-gallate improved energy metabolism in conditions like diet-induced obesity
and insulin resistance in vivo [43].
Berberine (BBR) is a naturally occurring substance with numerous pharmacological properties
that has been isolated from plants, including Coptis chinensis and Hydrastis canadensis [44]. Both
antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties are present. The mechanisms underlying BBR’s
antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects were intricate and involved numerous cellular kinases
and signaling pathways, including the nuclear factor-B (NF-B) pathway and AMP-activated pro-
tein kinase (AMPK) [45].
Mechanism of Action
BBR in the intestines may block the action of alpha-glucosidase in order to decrease intestinal
glucose absorption and thereby lower blood sugar levels [46]. Additionally, BBR has a role in the
treatment of metabolic syndromes and it is a promising molecule for antihyperglycaemia, insulin
sensitization, and antiobesity treatments by stimulating glycolysis, suppression of adipogenesis,
and activation of the AMPK pathway [47].
Antiaging and Antioxidation
Curcumin plays a vital role in antiaging by changing the levels of the protein taking part in the
process of aging [48]. Additionally, tannic acid is a naturally occurring plant polyphenol with an
effective antiphotoaging effect because of its antioxidant potential. Since polyphenols have phe-
nolic hydroxyl groups on their molecules, polyphenols can directly scavenge ROS and regulate the
production and activity of endogenous antioxidants and oxidase enzymes to exert antioxidant
action. Two intracellular enzymes, sodium oxide dismutase 1 (SOD1) in the cytosol and SOD2 in
the mitochondrial matrix, rapidly convert superoxide into hydrogen peroxide as a key method of
neutralizing oxidants [49]. Catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidases (GSH-Px) further deacti-
vate hydrogen peroxide to produce oxygen and water [50]. By inhibiting the synthesis or deactivat-
ing the active species and precursors of free radicals, polyphenols slow the creation of free radicals
and hence lower the rate of oxidation. They commonly serve as a direct scavenging free radical of
the chain processes of lipid peroxidation (chain breakers). Chain breakers remove an electron
from the free radical, neutralize it, and make the radicals themselves less reactive, stopping the
chain reactions [10].
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1 Food Polyphenols
12
Polyphenols and Neurodegeneration
Polyphenols have a strong antioxidative tendency, and therefore, consuming them may offer pro-
tection from neurological illnesses [40]. The consumption of green tea may have a beneficial effect
in reducing the risk of Parkinson’s disease. The ability of catechins to chelate iron adds to their
therapeutic role in Parkinson’s disease. This property aids in their antioxidant action by preventing
the generation of free radicals by redox-active transition metals [44].
Quercetin is a polyphenol abundant in nature and one of the most frequently occurring polyphe-
nols. Numerous plant-based products contain quercetin. The highest level of quercetin has been
found in onions. As a result of the molecule’s lipophilicity and ease with which it can pass the
blood–brain barrier (BBB), it offers protection from neurodegenerative disorders
[51].
Quercetin is a potential metal-chelating agent, and this property established the basis for reduc-
ing lead (Pb)-induced toxicity in the brain by reducing Pb concentrations in both the brain and
blood. Pb poisoning has negative effects such as disruption of the BBB, impairment of memory and
learning, and growth retardation [52]. Quercetin has a protective impact on the central nervous
system through a variety of mechanisms, including decreasing lipid peroxidation, and increasing
superoxide dismutase and CAT activity [50].
Mechanism of Action
Quercetin may work as a direct antioxidant and by energizing cellular defenses against oxidative
stress [53]. It reduces oxidative stress-induced neuronal damage by scavenging oxygen radicals
and performing metal-chelating procedures. Attenuating nitric oxide (NO) synthase and xanthine
oxidase are the next steps in the scavenging mechanism of quercetin [54].
1.3.2 Antioxidant Properties
Polyphenols exhibit potent antioxidant properties that can be attributed to their ability to donate
an electron or hydrogen atom and neutralize free radicals. The presence of a highly conjugated
system and specific hydroxylation patterns, such as the 3-hydroxy group in flavonoids, play signifi-
cant roles in their antioxidant activity [10].
Polyphenols have been recognized for their potential role in mitigating aging mechanisms
because of their antioxidant properties. The free radical theory of aging, also known as the oxi-
dative stress theory of aging, suggests that age-related functional declines are caused by the
accumulation of structural damage to macromolecules, such as lipids, DNA, and proteins,
resulting from oxidative damage. Polyphenols can act as antioxidants by neutralizing free radi-
cals through the donation of an electron or hydrogen atom, with certain hydroxylation pat-
terns, such as the 3-hydroxy group in flavonoids, that are considered crucial for their antioxidant
activities [55].
Oxidative stress would also result in cellular senescence, functional alterations, and pathological
conditions. Antioxidant properties of polyphenols counteract the oxidative stress and provide
health benefits through their antiaging mechanisms. The antioxidant properties of polyphenols
occur through the following four mechanisms.
1) Hydroxyl groups: Polyphenols can scavenge ROS by directly donating an electron or hydro-
gen atom. The scavenging activity of polyphenols is determined by the presence of phenolic
hydroxyl groups on their molecules, which can be influenced by the number, position, substitu-
ent patterns, and glycosylation of phytochemical molecules.
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1.3 Health Benefits and Antioxidant Properties of Polyphenols 13
For example, the antioxidant activity of kaempferol derivatives varies based on their hydroxy
substitutions, with kaempferol having the highest activity that is 2.7 times that of Trolox [56].
2) Oxidase enzyme production: Polyphenols can regulate the production and activity of oxidase
enzymes, which helps neutralize oxidants. The main enzymes responsible for this mechanism
are SOD1 and SOD2, which convert superoxide to hydrogen peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide is
then deactivated to water and oxygen by CAT or GSH-Px. Studies have shown that oral admin-
istration of epimedium flavonoids can improve CAT and GSH-Px activities in Drosophila mela-
nogaster [29].
3) Nrf2 mediated pathway: Polyphenols can enhance cellular antioxidant activity by regulating
the Nrf2 pathway, a transcriptional factor that controls the expression of detoxifying enzymes,
such as SOD, GPx1, NQO1, GST, and HO-1, by binding to antioxidant response elements (AREs)
in the promoter regions of enzyme genes [57]. Resveratrol may disrupt the Nrf2-Keap complex
in the cytosol, allowing Nrf2 to translocate to the nucleus and bind to the ARE-containing
5ʹ-promoter region of NQO1, leading to its transcriptional activation [58].
4) Regulating micro RNA: Micro RNAs (miRNAs) are short, single-stranded, non-coding RNA
molecules with a length of 19–22 nucleotides that bind to mRNA’s 3ʹUTR and regulate various
biological pathways and processes such as cell proliferation, cell death, cancer, aging, and other
human diseases. Approximately 60% of human transcripts are predicted to be regulated by
miRNAs [36].
Polyphenols, such as quercetin, hesperidin, naringenin, anthocyanin, catechin, and cur-
cumin, have been found to reverse the changes of specific miRNAs induced by ApoE muta-
tion. These miRNAs, including mmu-miR-291b-5p, mmu-miR-296-5p, mmu-miR-30c-1,
mmu-miR-467b, and mmu-miR-374, collectively regulate 34 pathways, including the GSH
metabolism pathway [59]. Curcumin has been found to downregulate the expression of cer-
tain miRNAs such as miR-17-5p, miR-20A, and miR-27a. These miRNAs have been shown to
modulate the production of ROS, which are known to contribute to oxidative stress and vari-
ous diseases. By downregulating these miRNAs, curcumin may have a protective effect against
oxidative stress and related diseases [60].
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1 Food Polyphenols
14
1.3.3 Critical View of Their Mode of Action
Polyphenols exhibit antioxidant properties through several known approaches, as mentioned ear-
lier. Besides their antioxidant effects, they have also been found to possess anticancer properties
and play a crucial role in reducing the risk of cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases.
Polyphenols can exert their effects either directly, such as in the case of antioxidant activity, or
indirectly by modulating cellular signaling pathways and machinery that regulate various cellular
functions under both normal and pathological conditions. Therefore, polyphenols have the poten-
tial to be used as therapeutic agents in the prevention and treatment of various diseases.
The impact of polyphenols on transcription factors can either activate or inhibit certain path-
ways, ultimately affecting the development of pathological conditions. For instance, polyphenols
can inhibit the JNK, ASK1, and p38 pathways, resulting in reduced inflammatory reactions and
apoptosis of neurons. This can also lead to a decrease in iNOS expression and NO release.
Alternatively, polyphenols can activate proteins, such as eNOS, that regulate NO and affect the
risk of cardiovascular disease. Therefore, polyphenols have the potential to impact various signal-
ing pathways, leading to positive and negative outcomes [61].
1.3.4 Crosstalk
Polyphenols interact with multiple signaling pathways and modulate their activity, leading to a
range of biological effects [62]. This activity is achieved through crosstalk between signaling path-
ways, where polyphenols can influence multiple pathways simultaneously. For example, polyphe-
nols can inhibit the production of ROS and activate the Nrf2 pathway, leading to the activation of
antioxidant enzymes [63]. Polyphenols can also inhibit NF-kB signaling, which leads to a reduc-
tion in the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Additionally, polyphenols can modulate the
activity of AMPK, which regulates cellular metabolism and energy balance. Crosstalk between
these pathways can lead to a range of effects such as improved insulin sensitivity, reduced oxida-
tive stress, and improved cardiovascular health. Understanding the crosstalk between these path-
ways is crucial for understanding the complex effects of polyphenols on human health [64].
Some common pathways involved in the cross talk of food polyphenols include:
● Antioxidant pathway: The antioxidant pathway refers to a complex series of cellular processes
that help to neutralize and remove harmful ROS from the body. ROS are highly
reactive
molecules that are produced as by-products of the cellular metabolism, and can damage cellular
components such as DNA, proteins, and lipids. The antioxidant pathway involves a variety of
enzymatic and non-enzymatic mechanisms that work together to protect the body from oxidative
stress. Some of the key components of the antioxidant pathway include:
Enzymatic antioxidants. These are enzymes that help break down ROS and convert them into less
harmful substances. Examples include SOD, CAT, and GSH-Px.
Non-enzymatic antioxidants. These are molecules that can neutralize ROS directly, without the
need for enzymatic activity. Examples include vitamins C and E, beta-carotene, and flavonoids.
Cellular repair mechanisms. When cellular components are damaged by ROS, the cell can acti-
vate repair mechanisms to fix the damage and prevent further harm.
Overall, the antioxidant pathway is a complex and dynamic system that plays a critical role in
maintaining cellular health and preventing disease. It is important to consume a balanced diet rich
in antioxidants, and to engage in healthy lifestyle behaviors, such as regular exercise and stress
reduction, to support the antioxidant pathway and reduce oxidative stress.
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1.3 Health Benefits and Antioxidant Properties of Polyphenols 15
Inflammation pathway: The inflammation pathway is a complex biological response that
occurs in response to tissue injury or infection. It is an essential part of the immune system’s
defense mechanism that aims to eliminate harmful stimuli and initiate the healing process.
The pathway begins with the release of chemical mediators, such as cytokines, histamines, and
prostaglandins, which trigger the dilation and increased permeability of blood vessels. This causes
an influx of white blood cells, particularly neutrophils, into the affected tissue.
Neutrophils then release enzymes that break down the damaged tissue and engulf and destroy
any pathogens present. This process creates an inflammatory exudate, which contains dead cells,
cellular debris, and fluid, resulting in characteristic signs of inflammation such as redness, swell-
ing, heat, and pain.
As the tissue begins to heal, macrophages, a type of white blood cell, remove the debris and initi-
ate the repair process. The inflammatory response eventually resolves, and the tissue returns to its
normal state.
However, if the inflammatory response is prolonged or excessive, it can result in chronic inflam-
mation, which can lead to tissue damage and disease. Examples of conditions associated with
chronic inflammation include rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel disease, and
atherosclerosis.
Metabolic pathway: A metabolic pathway is a series of chemical reactions that occur within a
cell to convert a starting molecule, known as a substrate, into a final product. These reactions are
often catalyzed by enzymes, which are specialized proteins that facilitate special chemical
reactions.
Metabolic pathways can be grouped into two main categories: catabolic pathways and anabolic
pathways. Catabolic pathways break down larger molecules into smaller molecules, releasing
energy in the process. Alternatively, anabolic pathways build larger molecules from smaller mol-
ecules, consuming energy in the process.
One well known metabolic pathway is cellular respiration, which is a catabolic pathway that
breaks down glucose molecules to release energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate, the pri-
mary energy source for cells. Another example of a metabolic pathway is the biosynthesis of amino
acids, which is an anabolic pathway that builds larger molecules from smaller molecules to create
the building blocks of proteins.
Signaling pathway: A signaling pathway refers to a series of chemical reactions that occur
within a cell in response to a specific stimulus or signal. These pathways are responsible for coor-
dinating cellular activities such as growth, differentiation, metabolism, and response to environ-
mental stimuli.
Signaling pathways typically involve a series of molecular interactions between different pro-
teins, enzymes, and other signaling molecules. The process begins when a signaling molecule,
such as a hormone, neurotransmitter, or growth factor, binds to a specific receptor on the surface
of a cell. This binding event triggers a series of downstream reactions that activate a cascade of
proteins and enzymes, ultimately resulting in a specific cellular response.
There are several different types of signaling pathways, including receptor tyrosine kinase path-
ways, G protein-coupled receptor pathways, and intracellular pathways. These pathways are criti-
cal to maintaining homeostasis within the body and for responding to changes in the environment.
Dysregulation of signaling pathways is implicated in a wide range of diseases, including cancer,
diabetes, and neurological disorders.
Microbiome pathway: The microbiome pathway refers to the interactions between microor-
ganisms and their hosts, particularly in the context of the human microbiome. The human micro-
biome comprises trillions of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, fungi, and other
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1 Food Polyphenols
16
microbes, that live on and within the human body. These microorganisms play a critical role in
human health, helping to regulate the immune system, digest food, and produce essential vitamins
and other compounds.
The microbiome pathway can be disrupted by a variety of factors, including diet, antibiotics, and
other medications, as well as environmental factors such as pollution and stress. When the micro-
biome is disrupted, it can lead to a range of health problems, including obesity, diabetes, autoim-
mune diseases, and even mental health disorders.
Research into the microbiome pathway is ongoing, and scientists are working to better under-
stand how these microorganisms interact with their hosts and how these interactions can be
manipulated to improve health outcomes. This includes exploring the potential of probiotics and
other microbiome-targeted therapies to treat and prevent disease.
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