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18 Radiation Protection andRegulations
specic monitoring devices (article 41). The use of radiation is approved by the
issuance of a license to a qualied person with experience in handling radiation
(article 28). All activities in the radiation area must be recorded. Similar to an RSO
in the USA, a radiation protection ofcer (RPO) is an expert in radiation protection
principles (article 84), who implements and supervises radiation safety regulations
in radiation facilities. These individuals are known by different titles, namely,
Radiation Protection Ofcers, Radiation Protection Advisors, or Radiation
Protection Experts (article 82) in different EU member states.
Although all EU regulations and Directives are equally applicable to all member
states, the actual situation differs from country to country, because of the lack of
effective implementation of the rules and regulations in many states. So in some
member states, these Directives are effectively implemented, while in others they
are leniently applied, and in some cases, there may be a breach of these community laws.
The detailed information of different Directives, Guidelines, and Regulations
given above may be available from the EU website. (http://data.europa.eu/eli/
dir/2013/59/2014- 01- 17).
18.16 Questions
1. Dene committed dose equivalent, deep-dose equivalent, total effective dose
equivalent, radiation area, and high radiation area.
2. What are the annual dose limits for radiation workers for:
(a) Whole body
(b) Eye Lens
(c) Extremities
3. What is the dose limit in the unrestricted area and for the individual members
of the public?
4. (a) Calculate the exposure rate at 10 inches from a 150-mCi (5.55GBq)–
source (Γ20 of
(b) If the half-value layer (HVL) of lead for
131
I=2.17R·cm2/mCi·h at 1cm).
131
I is 3mm, how much lead is
needed to reduce the exposure to 10% of the calculated value at 10 inches?
5. Why is 32P stored in plastic and not in lead containers?
6. What is the approximate amount of lead necessary to reduce the exposure rate
from a 200-mCi–
99m
(Γ20 of
of Pb for
Tc = 0.59 R cm2/mCi h at 1cm=15.95 μGy m2/GBq h at 1m; HVL
99m
99m
Tc source to less than 5 mR/h at 20cm from the source?
Tc=0.3mm).
7. If 1% of the primary beam exits through a patient with uniform attenuation,
calculate the exposure at the midline of the patient.
8. (a) Who are required to wear personnel monitoring devices?
(b) Film badges can discriminate different types of radiation. True or False?
(c) Film badges can discriminate radiations of different energies. True or False?
131
I
References and Suggested Readings
389
(d) Why are lters used in lm badges?
(e) Filters convert radiation energies into visible light. True or False?
(f) Filters protect the individual from radiation exposure. True or False?
(g) Describe how optically stimulated luminescence dosimeters work.
(h) Explain how TLD and OSLD differ in their operation.
9. (a) What is the ALARA program?
(b) What is an Agreement State? How many are there in the USA?
(c) How often should area surveys and wipe tests be performed in nuclear
medicine?
(d) When does one take a bioassay?
(e) What are the NRC requirements for survey of the packages on receipt?
(f) Describe different methods of disposal of radioactive waste.
(g) What are the general principles of handling radioactive spillage?
(h) What is a transportation index (TI), and how is it used in the transportation
of radioactive material?
10. What are the criteria for the release of patients administered with
radiopharmaceutical?
11. What is a dirty bomb? How does it differ from an atomic bomb?
12. What are the common radionuclides used in the radiological dispersal device?
What are the common sources of radioactive materials used in dirty bombs?
13. Describe the types of effects caused by radiation.
14. Describe the basic principles of decontamination of the contaminated
individuals.
15. What are the recommended steps one should take in the case of the explosion
of a dirty bomb?
16. The US Homeland Security monitors radioactivity for dirty bombs at strategic
points of commuting. The patients undergoing nuclear studies are given cards
by the hospitals to carry as a proof of radioactive examinations. How long
99m
123
should the patient normally carry the card for 18F,
201
Tl?
and
Tc,
I,
111
In, 67Ga,
References and Suggested Readings
Cox PH. European legislation and its effects on the production of radiopharmaceuticals. In:
Sampson CB, ed. Textbook of radiopharmacy 3rd ed. Amsterdam: Gordon and Brench Science
Publishers; 1999.
Federal Register. Code of Federal Regulations. 10CFR20 Standard for Protection against Radiation.
Washington, DC: U.S.Government Printing Ofce; 2025.
Federal Register. Code of Federal Regulations. 10CFR31 General Domestic License For Byproduct
Material. W ashington, DC: U.S.Government Printing Ofce; 2022.
Federal Register. Code of Federal Regulations. 10CFR33 Specic Domestic Licenses of Broad
Scope for byproduct Material. Washington, DC: U.S.Government Printing Ofce; 2020.
Federal Register. Code of Federal Regulations. 10CFR35 Medical Uses of Radioactive Material.
Washington, DC: U.S.Government Printing Ofce; 2020.
Federal Register. Code of Federal Regulations. 10CFR71 Packaging and Transportation of
Radioactive Material. Washington, DC: U.S.Government Printing Ofce; 2021.
390
Federal Register. Code of Federal Regulations. 49CFR171. Washington, DC: U.S.Government
Printing Ofce; 2025.
Jaworowski Z.Radiation risks and ethics, Physics Today. 1999; 52:24–290.
Martin JE. Physics of Radiation Protection. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Interscience; 2000.
Mettler FA, Voelz GI.Major radiation exposure—what to expect and how to respond. New Eng J
Med. 2002; 346: 1554.
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Basic Radiation Protection Criteria.
Bethesda, MD: NCRP Publication 39; 1971
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Nuclear Medicine–Factors
Inuencing the Choice and Use of Radionuclides Diagnosis and Therapy. Bethesda, MD:
NCRP Publication 70; 1982
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Ionizing Radiation Exposure of the
Population of the United States. Bethesda, MD: NCRP Publication 90; 1987
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Radiation Protection and Allied
Health Personnel. Bethesda, MD: NCRP Publication 105; 1989
Shapiro J. Radiation Protection. 3rd ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1990.
U.S.NRC NUREG-1556, Consolidated Guidance about Materials Licenses, U.S. Government
Printing Ofce; vol 9; Rev. 3: 2019.
Zuckier L, Stabin M, Garetano G etal. Sensitivity of personal homeland security radiation detectors
to medical radionuclides and implications for counseling of nuclear medicine patients. RSNA
Annual Meeting. 2004; Abstract SSJ19-01.
18 Radiation Protection andRegulations
http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2013/59/2014- 01- 17
Appendix A: Units andConstants
Energy
1 electron volt (eV) = 1.602×10
1 kiloelectron volt (keV) = 1.602×10−9 erg
1 million electron volts (MeV) = 1.602×10−6 erg
1 joule (J) = 107 ergs
1 watt (W) = 107 ergs/s
= 1 J/s
1 rad = 1×10
1 gray (Gy) = 100 rad
= 1 J/kg
1 sievert (Sv) = 100 rem
= 1 J/kg
1 horsepower (HP) = 746W
1 calorie (cal) = 4.184J
−12
erg
−2
J/kg=100ergs/g
Charge
1 electronic charge = 4.8×10
= 1.6×10
1 coulomb (C) = 6.28×1018 charges
1 ampere (A) = 1 C/s
−10
electrostatic unit
−19
C
Mass and Energy
1 atomic mass unit (amu) = 1.66×10
= 1/12the atomic weight of 12C
1 electron rest mass = 931MeV
1 proton rest mass = 0.511MeV
1 neutron rest mass = 938.78MeV
= 939.07MeV
1 pound = 453.6 g
−24
g
(continued)
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2025
G. B. Saha, Physics and Radiobiology of Nuclear Medicine,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-4816-2
391
392
Appendix A: Units andConstants
Length
1 micrometer, or micron (μm) = 10−6 m
= 104 Å
1 nanometer (nm) = 10
−9
m
1 angstrom (Å) = 10−8 cm
1 fermi (F) = 10
−13
cm
1 inch = 2.54cm
Activity
1 curie (Ci) = 3.7×1010 disintegrations per second (dps)
= 2.22×10
1 millicurie (mCi) = 3.7×10
= 2.22×109 dpm
1 microcurie (μCi) = 3.7×104 dps
= 2.22×106 dpm
1 becquerel (Bq) = 1 dps
= 2.703×10
1 kilobecquerel (kBq) = 103 dps
= 2.703×10−8 Ci
1 megabecquerel (MBq) = 106 dps
= 2.703×10−5 Ci
1 gigabecquerel (GBq) = 109 dps
= 2.703×10−2 Ci
1 terabecquerel (TBq) = 1012 dps
= 27.03Ci
12
disintegrations per minute (dpm)
7
dps
−11
Ci
Constants
Avogadro’s number = 6.02×1023 atoms/g
= 6.02×10
Planck’s constant ( h) = 6.625×10
Velocity of light = 3×10
23
molecules/g
−27
10
cm/s
π = 3.1416
e = 2.7183
atom
⋅
erg⋅s/cycle
mole
⋅
Appendix B: Terms Used inText
Absorption A process by which the total energy of
a radiation is removed by an absorber
through which it passes.
Accelerator A machine to accelerate charged par-
ticles linearly or in circular paths by
means of an electromagnetic eld.
The accelerated particles, such as
α-particles, protons, deuterons, and
heavy ions, possess high energies and
can cause nuclear reactions in target
atoms by irradiation.
Accuracy A term used to indicate how close a
measurement of a quantity is to its
true value.
Annihilation radiation γ-Radiations of 511 keV energy emit-
ted at 180° after a β+-particle is annihilated by combining with an electron
in matter.
Apoptosis A process of cell death in which a pro-
grammed sequence of events leads to
the elimination of cells making room
for new cells.
Articial Intelligence A branch of computer science that
mimics the human brain to solve
a problem
Articial neural networks A series of software by simulates the
structure of the human brain.
Atomic mass unit (amu) By denition, one twelfth of the mass
Atomic number (Z) The number of protons in the nucleus
12
C,
of
equal to 1.66 × 10
6
931MeV.
of an atom.
−24
g or
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer
Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2025
G. B. Saha, Physics and Radiobiology of Nuclear Medicine,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-4816-2
393
394
Appendix B: Terms Used inText
Attenuation A process by which the intensity of
radiation is reduced by absorption
and/or scattering during its passage
through matter.
Attenuation coefcient The fraction of γ-ray energy attenu-
ated (absorbed plus scattered) per unit
length of an absorber (linear attenuation coefcient, μ) or per gram of an
absorber (mass attenuation coefcient, μm).
Auger electron An electron ejected from an energy
shell, instead of a characteristic x-ray
emission, carrying the energy equal to
that of the x-ray minus its binding energy.
Average life (τ) See Mean life.
Avogadro’s number The number of molecules in 1 g mole
of any substance or the number of
atoms in 1 g atom of any element. It is
equal to 6.02×1023.
Becquerel (Bq) A unit of radioactivity. One becquerel
is equal to 1 disintegration per second.
Binding energy The energy to bind two entities
together. In a nucleus, it is the energy
needed to separate a nucleon completely from other nucleons in the
nucleus. In a chemical bond, it is the
energy necessary to separate two
binding partners an innite distance.
Biological half-life (T
) The time by which one half of an
b
administered dosage of a substance is
eliminated by biological processes
such as urinary and fecal excretions.
Bremsstrahlung γ-Ray photons produced by the decel-
eration of charged particles near the
nucleus of an absorber atom.
Carrier A stable element that is added in
detectable quantities to a radionuclide
of the same element, usually to facilitate chemical processing of the
radionuclide.
Carrier-free A term used to indicate the absence of
any stable atoms in a radionuclide sample.
Appendix B: Terms Used inText
395
Chatbot A set of instructions that simulate con-
versation with humans through texts
or voice interactions. Chatbots are
language models and use natural language processing (NLP) as the core
technology in guiding different
chatbots.
Collimator A device to conne a beam of radia-
tion within a specic eld of view.
Collimators may be converging, pinhole, diverging, and parallelhole types.
Collimator efciency The number of photons passing
through the collimator for each unit of
activity present in a source.
Collimator resolution A component of spatial resolution of
an imaging system contributed by the
collimator. It is also called geometric
resolution.
Committed dose equivalent (H
) The dose equivalent to organs or tis-
T, 50
sues of reference (T) that will be
received from an intake of radioactive
material by an individual during the
50-year period following intake.
Compton scattering In this process, a γ-ray transfers only a
partial amount of energy to an outer
orbital electron of an absorber, and the
photon itself is deected with
less energy.
−
Conversion electron (e
) See Internal conversion.
Critical organ See Organ, critical.
Cross section (σ) The probability of occurrence of a
nuclear reaction or the formation of a
radionuclide in a nuclear reaction. It is
expressed in a unit termed barn;
1barn=10
−24
cm2.
Curie (Ci) A unit of activity. A curie is dened as
3.7×1010 disintegrations per second.
Database A collection of data on a topic of
interest that is stored, accessed, and
retrieved electronically according to
specications needed for AI applications for a task.
396
Appendix B: Terms Used inText
Dead time The period of time that a counter
remains insensitive to count the next
after an event.
Decay constant (λ) The fraction of atoms of a radioactive
element decaying per unit time. It is
expressed as λ=0.693/t
, where t
1/2
is
1/2
the half-life of the radionuclide.
Deep-dose equivalent (Hd) Dose equivalent at a tissue depth of
1 cm (1000 mg/cm2) resulting from
external whole-body exposure.
Deep learning (DL) An upgraded variation of machine
learning, which can perform more
complex tasks using large volumes
of data.
Dose The energy of radiation absorbed by
any matter.
Dosimeter An instrument to measure the cumula-
tive dose of radiation received during
a period of radiation exposure.
Dosimetry The calculation or measurement of
radiation absorbed doses.
Effective dose The sum of the products of the com-
mitted dose equivalent to each of the
body organs and tissues and the
weighting factor of the corresponding
organ or tissue (He=ΣWT×H
T, 50
)
Effective half-life (Te) Time required for an initial adminis-
tered dose to be reduced to one-half as
a result of both physical decay and
biological elimination of a radionuclide. It is given by T
=(Tp ×Tb)/
e
(Tp + Tb), where Te is the effective
half- life, and Tp and Tb are the physical and biological half-lives,
respectively.
Electron (e−) A negatively charged particle rotating
around the atomic nucleus. It has a
charge of 4.8 × 10
units and a mass of 9.1 × 10
−10
electrostatic
−28
g,
equivalent to 0.511 MeV, or equal to
1/1836 of the mass of a proton.
Electron capture (EC) A mode of decay of a proton-rich
radionuclide in which an orbital electron is captured by the nucleus,
accompanied by emission of a neutrino and characteristic x-rays or
Auger electrons.
Appendix B: Terms Used inText
397
Electron volt (eV) The kinetic energy gained by an elec-
tron when accelerated through a
potential difference of 1 V.
Encoder and decoder Components of neural network archi-
tectures are used to transform data
from one format to another by compressing to a lower- dimensional entity.
Energy resolution Capability of a detecting system to
separate two γ-ray peaks of different
energies. It is given by the full width
at half maximum (FWHM) of a given
photopeak.
Erg The unit of energy or work done by a
force of 1 dyne through a distance
of 1cm.
Fission (f) A nuclear process by which a nucleus
divides into two nearly equal smaller
nuclei, along with the emission of two
to three neutrons.
Free radical A highly reactive chemical species
that has one or more unpaired
electrons.
Generative adversarial network (GAN) A DL model with two parts: (1) the
generator (generative) that produces
new data following modication of
input data, and (2) the discriminator
that veries if the output is correct
against the actual input.
Generative AI (GenAI) A machine learning AI model that is
trained to analyze the patterns in a
large volume of available data and
replicate those patterns to create new
data, content, or information like text,
images, audios, and videos.
Generator, radionuclide A device in which a short-lived daugh-
ter is separated chemically and periodically from a long-lived parent
adsorbed on adsorbent material. For
example,
99m
Tc is separated from 99Mo
from the Moly generator with saline.
Gray (Gy) The unit of absorbed radiation dose in
SI units. One gray is equal to 100 rad.