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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5545_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
X
- •Preface
- •Contents
- •1: Structure of Matter
- •2: Radioactive Decay
- •2.1 Spontaneous Fission
- •1.1.1 Radiation
- •1.2 The Atom
- •1.2.3 Nuclear Binding Energy
- •1.3 Nuclear Nomenclature
- •1.5 Questions
- •Suggested Readings
- •2.2 Isomeric Transition
- •2.2.1 Gamma (γ)-Ray Emission
- •2.2.2 Internal Conversion
- •2.2.2.1 Problem 2.1
- •2.2.2.2 Answer
- •2.3 Alpha (α)-Decay
- •2.4 Beta (β−)-Decay
- •2.5 Positron (β+)-Decay
- •2.6 Electron Capture
- •2.7 Questions
- •Suggested Readings
- •3.1 Radioactive Decay Equation
- •3.1.1 General Equation
- •3.1.2 Half-Life
- •3.1.3 Mean Life
- •3.1.4 Effective Half-Life
- •3.2 Units of Radioactivity
- •3.3 Specific Activity
- •3.4 Calculation
- •3.5 Successive Decay Equations
- •3.5.1 General Equation
- •3.5.2 Transient Equilibrium
- •3.5.3 Secular Equilibrium
- •3.6 Questions
- •Suggested Readings
- •4.5 Poisson Distribution
- •4.6 Gaussian Distribution
- •4.7 Chi-Square Test
- •4.8 Minimum Detectable Activity
- •4.10 Questions
- •Suggested Readings
- •5.1 Cyclotron-Produced Radionuclides
- •5.2 Reactor-Produced Radionuclides
- •5.2.1 Fission or (n, f) Reaction
- •5.2.2 Neutron Capture or (n, γ) Reaction
- •5.6 Radionuclide Generators
- •5.8 Questions
- •Suggested Readings
- •6.1.1 Specific Ionization
- •6.1.2 Linear Energy Transfer
- •6.1.3 Range
- •6.1.4 Bremsstrahlung
- •6.1.5 Positron Annihilation
- •6.2.1.1 Photoelectric Effect
- •6.2.1.2 Compton Scattering
- •6.2.1.3 Pair Production
- •6.2.1.4 Raleigh Scattering
- •6.2.1.5 Photodisintegration
- •6.3.2 Half-Value Layer
- •6.5 Questions
- •Suggested Readings
- •7: Gas-Filled Detector
- •7.1 Principles of Gas-Filled Detector
- •7.2 Ionization Chamber
- •7.2.1 Ion Chamber Survey Meter
- •7.2.2 Dose Calibrator
- •7.2.2.1 Constancy
- •7.2.2.2 Accuracy
- •7.2.2.3 Linearity
- •7.2.2.4 Geometry
- •7.2.3 Pocket Dosimeter
- •7.3 Proportional Counter
- •7.4 Geiger–Müller Counter
- •7.5 Questions
- •Suggested Readings
- •8.1 Scintillation Counter
- •8.4.3 Characteristic X-Ray Peak
- •8.4.4 Backscatter Peak
- •8.4.5 Iodine Escape Peak
- •8.2 Solid Scintillation Detector
- •8.2.1 NaI (Tl) Detector
- •8.2.2 Bismuth Germanate Detector
- •8.2.3 Barium Fluoride Detector
- •8.2.4 Lutetium Oxyorthosilicate Detector
- •8.2.5 Gadolinium Oxyorthosilicate Detector
- •8.2.6 Yttrium Oxyorthosilicate Detector
- •8.2.7 Yttrium Aluminum Perovskite Detector
- •8.2.8 Lutetium Yttrium Oxyorthosilicate Detector
- •8.2.9 Lanthanum Bromide Detector
- •8.3 Solid-State Detector
- •8.3.2 Cadmium–Zinc–Tellurium Detector
- •8.3.3 Cesium Iodide (CsI(Tl)) Detector
- •8.3.4 Solid Scintillation Counter
- •8.3.4.1 NaI(Tl) Detector
- •8.3.4.2 Photomultiplier Tube
- •8.3.4.3 Preamplifier
- •8.3.4.4 Linear Amplifier
- •8.3.4.5 Pulse-Height Analyzer
- •8.3.4.6 Display or Storage
- •8.4 Gamma-Ray Spectrometry
- •8.4.1 Photopeak
- •8.4.6 Positron Annihilation Peak
- •8.4.7 Coincidence Peak
- •8.5 Liquid Scintillation Counter
- •8.5.1 Quenching
- •8.6.1 Energy Resolution
- •8.6.2 Detection Efficiency
- •8.6.2.1 Intrinsic Efficiency
- •8.6.2.2 Photopeak Efficiency or Photofraction
- •8.6.2.3 Geometric Efficiency
- •8.6.3 Dead Time
- •8.7 Gamma Well Counter
- •8.8 Thyroid Probe
- •8.8.1 Thyroid Uptake Measurement
- •8.9 Questions
- •Suggested Readings
- •9: Gamma Camera
- •9.1 Gamma Camera
- •9.1.2 Detector
- •9.1.3 Collimator
- •9.1.4 Photomultiplier Tube
- •9.1.5 X-, Y-Positioning Circuit
- •9.1.6 Pulse-Height Analyzer
- •9.2 Digital Camera
- •9.2.1 Solid State Digital Camera
- •9.3 Questions
- •Suggested Readings
- •10.1.1 Spatial Resolution
- •10.1.1.1 Intrinsic Resolution
- •10.1.1.2 Collimator Resolution
- •10.1.1.3 Scatter Resolution
- •10.1.2.1 Bar Phantom
- •10.1.2.2 Line-Spread Function
- •10.1.2.3 Modulation Transfer Function
- •10.1.3 Sensitivity
- •10.1.3.1 Collimator Efficiency
- •10.1.4 Uniformity
- •10.1.5 Pulse-Height Variation
- •10.1.6 Nonlinearity
- •10.1.7 Edge Packing
- •10.2 Gamma Camera Tuning
- •10.4 Contrast
- •10.4.1 Count Density
- •10.4.2 Image Noise
- •10.4.4 High Count Rate
- •10.4.6 Patient Motion
- •10.5.1 Daily Checks
- •10.5.1.2 Uniformity
- •10.5.2 Weekly Checks
- •10.5.3 Monthly Checks
- •10.5.3.1 High-Count Uniformity Calibration
- •10.5.3.2 Collimator Integrity
- •10.5.4 Annual, Semiannual, or As-Needed Checks
- •10.6 Questions
- •References and Suggested Readings
- •11.1.1 Central Processing Unit
- •11.1.2 Computer Memory
- •11.1.3 External Storage Device
- •11.1.4 Input/Output Device
- •11.1.7 Digital-to-Analog Conversion
- •11.1.8 Digital Image
- •11.2.1 Digital Data Acquisition
- •11.2.2 Static Study
- •11.2.3 Dynamic Study
- •11.2.4 Gated Study
- •11.2.7 Display
- •11.3.1 PACS
- •11.4 Questions
- •Suggested Readings
- •12: Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography
- •12.1 Tomographic Imaging
- •12.2 Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography
- •12.2.1 Data Acquisition
- •12.2.2 Image Reconstruction
- •12.2.2.1 Simple Backprojection
- •12.2.2.2 Filtered Backprojection
- •12.2.2.3 The Convolution Method
- •12.2.2.4 The Fourier Method
- •12.2.2.6 Iterative Reconstruction
- •12.3 SPECT/CT Scanner
- •12.4 Factors Affecting SPECT
- •12.4.1 Photon Attenuation
- •12.4.2 Attenuation Correction Methods
- •12.5 Partial-Volume Effect
- •12.5.2 Sampling
- •12.5.3 Scattering
- •12.6.1 Spatial Resolution
- •12.6.2 Sensitivity
- •12.6.3 Other Parameters
- •12.7.1 Daily Tests
- •12.7.2 Weekly Tests
- •12.7.2.1 Spatial Resolution
- •12.9 Questions
- •References and Suggested Readings
- •13: Positron Emission Tomography
- •13.1 Introduction
- •13.2 PET Radiopharmaceuticals
- •13.3.2 Block Detector
- •13.5 Coincidence Timing Window
- •13.6 PET/CT Scanner
- •13.7 PET/MR Scanner
- •13.7.2 MR Scanner
- •13.7.3 Commercial PET/MR Scanner
- •13.8 Mobile PET or PET/CT Scanner
- •13.9 Micro-PET Scanner
- •13.11 Data Acquisition
- •13.12 Image Reconstruction
- •13.13 Factors Affecting PET
- •13.13.1 Normalization
- •13.13.2 Photon Attenuation Correction
- •13.13.4 Random Coincidences
- •13.13.5 Scatter Coincidences
- •13.13.6 Dead Time
- •13.13.7 Radial Elongation
- •13.14.1 Spatial Resolution
- •13.14.2 Sensitivity
- •13.14.2.1 Noise Equivalent Count Rate
- •13.15.1 Daily Tests
- •13.15.1.1 Sinogram Check
- •13.15.2 Weekly Tests
- •13.15.2.1 Normalization
- •13.18 Questions
- •References and Suggested Reading
- •14.1 Background
- •14.5 Artificial Neural Network
- •14.7 Machine Learning
- •14.7.1 Decision Tree
- •14.7.2 Random Forest
- •14.7.3 Support Vector Machine
- •14.7.4 Computer Vision
- •14.8 Deep Learning
- •14.8.1 Convolutional Network
- •14.8.2 Recurrent Neural Network
- •14.8.3 Generative Adversarial Network
- •14.8.4 Transfer Learning
- •14.9 Radiomics
- •14.10 Natural Language Processing
- •14.11 Large Language Model
- •14.12 Generative Artificial Intelligence
- •14.13.1 Prompt
- •14.13.2 Token
- •14.13.3 Hallucination
- •14.13.4 Deepfake
- •14.13.5 Overfitting
- •14.15 Chatbot
- •14.18 Legal Implication
- •14.20 Questions
- •References
- •15.1 Introduction
- •15.2.1 Scheduling
- •15.2.2 Image Acquisition
- •15.2.3 Image Processing
- •15.2.4 Interpretation
- •15.2.5 Reporting
- •15.3.1 Oncology
- •15.3.2 Cardiovascular Disease
- •15.3.3 Bone Scintigraphy
- •15.3.4 Thyroid Imaging
- •15.5 Drug Development
- •15.6 Questions
- •References and Suggested Reading
- •16: Internal Radiation Dosimetry
- •16.1 Radiation Unit
- •16.1.1 Roentgen
- •16.1.2 Rad
- •16.1.3 Gray
- •16.1.4 Rem
- •16.1.5 Radiation Weighting Factor
- •16.1.6 Quality Factor
- •16.1.7 Sievert
- •16.2 Dose Calculation
- •16.2.1 Radiation Dose Rate
- •16.2.2 Cumulative Radiation Dose
- •16.2.3 Factors Affecting Ã
- •16.2.4 The S Values
- •16.4 Pediatric Dosage
- •16.5 Questions
- •References and Suggested Readings
- •17: Radiation Biology
- •17.1 The Cell
- •17.2.1 DNA Molecule
- •17.2.2 Chromosome
- •17.5 Cell Survival Curves
- •17.6 Factors Affecting Radiosensitivity
- •17.6.1 Dose Rate
- •17.6.2 Linear Energy Transfer
- •17.6.4 Chemicals
- •17.7 Radiosensitizer
- •17.7.1 Oxygen
- •17.7.2 Pyrimidine
- •17.7.3 Others
- •17.8 Radioprotector
- •17.9 Apoptosis
- •17.13.1 Hematopoietic Syndrome
- •17.13.2 Gastrointestinal Syndrome
- •17.13.3 Cerebrovascular Syndrome
- •17.14.1 Somatic Effects
- •17.14.1.1 Carcinogenesis
- •17.14.1.3 Dose–Response Relationship
- •17.14.1.5 Leukemia
- •17.14.1.6 Breast Cancer
- •17.14.1.7 Other Cancers
- •17.14.1.10 Nonspecific Life-Shortening
- •17.14.1.11 Cataractogenesis
- •17.14.2 Genetic Effects
- •17.14.2.1 Spontaneous Mutation
- •17.14.2.2 Doubling Dose
- •17.14.2.3 Genetically Significant Dose
- •17.17 Questions
- •References and Suggested Readings
- •18.1 Introduction
- •18.2 Radiation Protection
- •18.2.3 Occupational Dose Limits
- •18.2.4 ALARA Program
- •18.2.5.1 Time
- •18.2.5.2 Distance
- •18.2.5.3 Shielding
- •18.2.5.4 Activity
- •18.2.6 Personnel Monitoring
- •18.2.6.1 Film Badge
- •18.2.6.2 Thermoluminescent Dosimeter
- •18.2.6.3 Optically Stimulated Luminescence Dosimeter
- •18.3 Radiation Regulations
- •18.3.1 License
- •18.3.1.1 General License
- •18.3.1.2 Specific License of Limited Scope
- •18.3.1.3 Specific Licenses of Broad Scope
- •18.3.2 Radiation Safety Committee
- •18.3.3 Radiation Safety Officer
- •18.3.4.3 Supervision
- •18.3.4.4 Mobile Nuclear Medicine Service
- •18.3.4.5 Written Directives
- •18.4 Bioassay
- •18.6 Radioactive Waste Disposal
- •18.6.2 Release into Sewerage Systems
- •18.6.4 Other Disposal Methods
- •18.7 Radioactive Spill
- •18.8 Recordkeeping
- •18.10 Dirty Bombs
- •18.11 Types of Accidental Radiation Exposure
- •18.12 Protective Measures in Case of Explosion of a Dirty Bomb
- •18.13 Verification Card for Radioactive Patients
- •18.14 Radiation Phobia
- •18.15 European Regulations Governing Radiation
- •18.16 Questions
- •References and Suggested Readings
- •Index
418
Index
T
99m
Tc-ethyl cysteinate dimer (ECD), 165
Tenth-value layer (TVL), 76, 77
Thermal neutron, 402
Thermoluminescent dosimeter (TLD), 361
Three-dimensional (3-D) acquisition, 231
Thyroid imaging, 285
Thyroid probe, 115, 116
Thyroid uptake measurement, 116
Time-activity curve (TAC), 163
Time of ight (TOF), 230, 231
Tissue weighting factor (W
), 402
T
Token, 402
Tomographic imaging, 171
Total body irradiation
cerebrovascular syndromes, 338
gastrointestinal syndromes, 338
hematopoietic syndrome, 338
lethal dose, 337
stages, 337
Total effective dose equivalent (TEDE), 354
Total imaging matrix (TIM), 224
Transfer learning, 266
Transient equilibrium, 30–33
Transition/decay energy, 15
Transmission method, 196, 197, 234, 235
Transportation of radioactive
materials, 379–381
Transverse magnetization, 219
T1 relaxation, 221
T2 relaxation, 221
True positive (TP), 44
Tumor hypoxia, 331
Two-dimensional (2-D) acquisition, 231
Typical parallel-hole collimator, 130
Typical rectangular bar phantom, 134
U
Uniformity, 129, 140, 142, 147,
149–151, 203–205
Unit of radioactivity, 25, 26
Unrestricted area, 355
Unsupervised ML models, 258
U.S.Department of Transportation
(DOT), 379
Useful eld of view
(UFOV), 149, 150
V
Very high-radiation area, 355
Volume smoothing, 184
W
Wavelength shifter, 106
Weekly checks, 150–151
Weiner and Metz lters, 183
Whole-body exposure, 382
X
X-, Y-positioning circuit, 123,
124
Y
Yttrium aluminum perovskite (YAP)
detector, 94, 96
Yttrium oxyorthosilicate (YSO)
detector, 94–96
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