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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5545_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана.pdf
408
Index
B
Backprojection method, 174
ltered, 177
convolution method, 177–179
lters, types of, 180–184
Fourier method, 178–180
simple, 174–177
Backpropagation, 255
Backscatter peak, 103
Bar phantom, 134–135, 150
Barium uoride (BaF2), 94, 231
Becquerel (Bq), 394
−
Beta (β
)-decay, 15–17
Binding energy, 5–8, 394
Bioassays, 374
Biological half-life (T
), 25, 394
b
Bismuth germinate (BGO) detector, 94, 95, 98
1, 4-bis-2-(5-phenyloxazolyl)-benzene
(POPOP), 106
2,5 bis-2-(5-T-butylbenzoxazolyl)-thiophene
(BBOT), 105
Block detector, 211–213
Bohr’s atomic structure, 3
Bohr’s atomic theory, 3, 6
Bone scintigraphy, 284–285
Bragg ionization, 66, 67
Breast cancer, 343
Bremsstrahlung radiations, 69, 394
Butterworth lter, 183
C
Cadmium–Zinc–Tellurium (CZT)
detectors, 97
Calibration of well counter, 113
Calicheck, 88
Cancer, 339, 341, 342
Cardiovascular disease, 284
Carrier, 394
Carrier-free, 50–52, 62, 394
Cataractogenesis, 344
Cathode ray tubes (CRT), 165
Cell death, 334
Cells
apoptosis, 334
chromosomes, 317, 320, 322–324
DNA molecules, 315, 317, 319–321
genetic effects
doubling dose, 346
GSD, 346, 347
spontaneous mutation, 346
meiosis,
317
mitosis, 317, 318
nucleus and cytoplasm, 315
radiation damage, 334, 335
radiation exposure, 335, 336
radioprotectors, 333, 334
radiosensitivity of
chemicals, 331
differentiated and undifferentiated, 326
dose rate, 329, 330
irradiation, 327
LET, 329
stage of cell cycle, 330
types of, 326
radiosensitizers
misonidazole, 333
oxygen, 331, 332
pyrimidines, 333
somatic effects of radiation
breast cancer, 343
carcinogenesis, 339–341
cataractogenesis, 344
dose–response relationship, 341, 342
embryo and fetus, 345, 346
excess cancer risk, 342
leukemia, 342
nonspecic life-shortening, 344
reproductive organs, 344
skin, 343, 344
S phase, 317, 319
stochastic and deterministic effects, 337
structure of, 315, 316
survival curves, 327–329
total body irradiation
cerebrovascular syndromes, 338
gastrointestinal (GI) syndromes, 338
hematopoietic syndrome, 338
lethal dose, 337
stages, 337
Cell survival curves, 327–329
Center of FOV (CFOV), 230
Center of rotation (COR), 199, 200, 204
Central eld of view (CFOV), 149, 150
Central nervous system (CNS), 345
Central processing unit (CPU), 156, 157, 270
Centromere, 317
Cerebrovascular syndromes, 338
Cerenkov radiation, 66
Cesium uoride (CsF), 231
Cesium iodide (CsI(Tl)) detector, 97–98
Chang method, 196, 234–236
Characteristic K x-ray, 13,
14
Characteristic x-rays, 6
Chart of the nuclides, 8–9
Chatbot, 271–273, 395
ChatGPT, 253, 260, 264, 265, 268, 269,
271–273, 285–287
Index
409
Chi-square (χ
2
) test, 41–43
Choice of matrix, 146
Chromosomes, 317, 320, 322–324
Cloud storage, 158
57
Co ood source, 149
Coincidence event, 228
Coincidence or sum peak, 104
Coincidence timing window, 213–216
Collective effective dose, 348
Collimator/geometric efciency, 121, 122,
140, 395
efciency, 132, 139, 140, 395
integrity, 147, 151
resolution, 130–133, 395
Committed dose equivalent ( H
T,50
), 395
Committed effective dose equivalent, 354
Compton edge, 102
Compton plateau, 102
Compton scattering, 71–75, 395
Compton valley, edge, and plateau, 102
Computer vision, 260, 261
Cone-beam collimators, 122
Constants, 391–392
Contrast
choice of matrix, 146
count or information density, 144
high count rate, 146
image noise, 144–146
patient motion, 147
size of lesion, 146
Contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR), 145, 146
Control rods, 50
Controlled area, 354
Converging collimators, 122
Conversion coefcient, 13
Conversion electron, 13
Convolution method, 177, 180
Convolutional neuronal network
(CNN), 261–265
Cosmic rays, 335
Count or information density, 144
Counting in well counter, 113–115
Counting system
dead time, 111–112
detection efciency, 108
geometric efciency, 110
intrinsic efciency, 108–109
photopeak efciency or
photofraction, 109
energy resolution, 107–108
Critical frequency, 183
Cross section (σ),
395
CsI(Tl) detectors, 126
CT dose index (CTDI), 205
CT scanner, 189–193, 205
quality control tests, 204–205
Cumulative radiation dose, 296, 297
Curie (Ci), 395
Cut-off frequency, 182, 183
Cyclotron-produced radionuclides, 47–50
CZT detectors, 126
D
Data acquisition
coincidence event, 228
dynamic study, 162, 163
frame mode and list mode, 162
gated study, 163, 164
LOR, 228, 229
pulses, 228
sinogram, 229, 230
static study, 161, 162
TOF, 230, 231
two-dimensional vs. three-
dimensional, 231–233
whole-body scan, 229
X- and Y-signals, 161
Database, 395
Dead time, 97, 111–112, 239, 396
Dead time loss, 111, 112
Decay constant (λ), 21–25, 396
Decay factor, 22
Decay-in-storage method, 376
Decay scheme, 16
68
of
Ga, 18
131
of
I, 16
111
of
In, 18
Decision tree, 259
Decoder, 397
Dee, 47
Deep-dose equivalent (H
), 354, 396
d
Deepfakes, 269, 270
Deep learning (DL), 396
classication, 261
CNN, 261–265
GAN, 265
transfer learning, 266
Delta (δ-) rays, 65
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules, 315
Derived air concentration (DAC), 354
Detection efciency, 108
geometric efciency, 110
intrinsic efciency, 108–109
photopeak efciency/photofraction, 109
Deterministic effects, 337
Diagnostic tests, evaluation of, 44–45
Differential uniformity (DU), 150
410
Index
Digirad Corporation, 126
Digital camera, 125–127
Digital computers
binary system, 155
components, 156
computer memory, 157
CPU, 156, 157
data acquisition
dynamic study, 162, 163
frame mode and list mode, 162
gated study, 163, 164
physiologic markers, 161
static study, 161, 162
X- and Y-signals, 161
external storage, 155
cloud storage, 158
DACs, 159
digital images, 159, 160
digitization of analog data, 159
oppy disks, 157
input/output devices, 158
reconstruction methods
display, 165, 166
fusion and subtraction, 164, 165
software and DICOM, 166–168
Digital imaging and communications in
medicine (DICOM), 166–168
Digital-to-analog converters (DACs), 159
Dirty bomb
denition, 381
explosion of, 383
sources of, 382
Displacement distance, 189, 214
Diverging collimators, 122
DNA molecules, 317, 319–321, 324
DNA synthesis, 317
Dose, 396
Dose calibrator, 81, 84–86
Dose length product (DLP), 205
Dosimeter/dosimetry, 396
Double-escape peak, 104
Dual-head SPECT camera, 172
Dual-modality system, 189
Dynodes, 98, 101
E
Edge packing, 142
Effective dose, 396
Effective dose equivalent (EDE),
301, 307–309
Effective half-life (T
), 25, 396
e
Elastic scattering, 78
−
Electron (e
Electron capture (EC), 11, 18–19,
), 396
396
Electron congurations, 4, 5
Electron-hole pairs, 362
Electron volt (eV), 397
Electronic conguration, 4–6
Electronic health record (EHR), 278, 279, 281
Electronic structure of the atom, 3, 4
Electrons, 1–6
Embryo, 345, 346, 371
Emission computed tomography (ECT), 171
Encoder, 397
Endoplasmic reticula, 317
Energy calibration well counter, 113
Energy resolution, 95–97, 107–108, 397
Epileptogenic foci, 165
Equilibrium dose constant, 296
Erg, 397
European Union (EU) Regulations, 386–388
Excitation, 6, 8, 65, 70, 71, 78
External storage devices
cloud storage, 158
DACs, 159
digitization of analog data, 159
oppy disks, 157
input/output devices, 158
operation of, 158, 159
F
False-negatives (FN), 44
False-positives (FP), 44
Fan-beam collimators, 122
Fetus, 345, 346, 371
18
F-uorodopa, 210
Film badge, 361
Filtered backprojection (FBP), 177, 180, 183,
188, 195, 197, 203, 240
Fission (f), 50–52, 397
Fission molybdenum, 52
Floppy disks, 157
Fluorescence yield, 14
Forward propagation, 255
Fourier lters, 180
Fourier method, 177–180
Fourier rebinning (FORE) method, 233
Fourier transformation, 179, 180
Free induction decay (FID), 220
Free radical, 397
Full ring x-ray unit, 190
Full width at half-maximum (FWHM),
107, 108, 130, 136, 138,
150, 397
Index
411
G
Gadolinium oxyorthosilicate (GSO)
detector, 94, 95
Gamma camera
contrast, 144
choice of matrix, 146
high count rate, 146
image noise, 144–146
count or information density, 144
patient motion, 147
size of lesion, 146
digital camera, 125–127
high counting rates, 143–144
operational principles
collimator, 121, 122
detector, 119, 121
display and storage, 125
photomultiplier tube, 123
pulse-height analyzer, 124
single-head, 120
X-, Y-positioning circuit, 123, 124
quality control tests
annual, semiannual, or as-needed
checks, 151
daily checks, 148–150
monthly checks, 151
weekly checks, 150–151
spatial resolution (see Spatial resolution)
tuning, 142–143
Gamma (γ)-ray emission, 12, 49
Gamma (γ)-ray spectrometry
backscatter peak, 103
characteristic X-ray peak, 103
coincidence or sum peak, 104
Compton valley, edge, and plateau, 102
iodine escape peak, 103–104
photopeak, 101
positron annihilation peak, 104
Gamma well counter
calibration of well counter, 113
counting in well counter, 113–115
sample volume effect, 115
Gas-lled Detectors
dose calibrator, 85–87
gas amplication, 81, 82
Geiger–Müller (GM) counter, 89–91
ion chamber survey meter, 84–85
ionization chamber, 83–88
pocket dosimeter, 88
proportional counters, 89
principles of, 81–83
Gastrointestinal (GI) syndromes, 338
Gaussian distribution, 40–41
Geiger region, 82, 83, 89
Geiger–Müller (GM) counter, 89–91
General license, 363
Generative adversarial network (GAN),
265, 397
Generative articial intelligence (GenAI), 267,
268,
397
Generator, radionuclide, 397
Genetic effects
doubling dose, 346
genetically signicant dose (GSD),
346, 347
spontaneous mutation, 346
Genetically signicant dose (GSD), 346, 347
Geometric efciency (E
Geometric resolution (R
), 110, 139
g
), see Collimator
g
resolution
Germ cells, 315
Germanium and silicon detector, 96–97
Gradient recalled echo (GRE), 222
Graphics processing units (GPUs), 270
Gray (Gy), 397
H
Half-life (t
), 23–27, 29, 31–34, 398
1/2
Half-value layer (HVL), 75–77, 359, 398
Hallucination, 269
Hamming lter, 183
Hann lter, 183
HeLa cells, 335
Helical or spiral CT scanners, 190
Hematopoietic syndrome, 338
High-contrast spatial resolution, 243
High count rate, 143–144, 146
High-count-uniformity calibration, 151
High purity germanium (HPGe), 96, 97
High-radiation area, 355
High-voltage, 113
Hormesis, 344
Hospital Information System (HIS), 167
Hospital Insurance Portability and
Accountability Act (HIPAA), 167
Hounseld units (HU), 204, 205
Hydrogen atoms, 219
Hypoxia, 331
Hypoxic cells, 331, 332
I
Image reconstruction, 174, 180, 184, 188, 196
ltered backprojection, 177
convolution method, 177–179
lters, types of, 180–184
Fourier method, 178–180
iterative reconstruction, 184–188
simple backprojection, 174–177
412
Index
Inelastic scattering, 78
Inorganic scintillators, 93
Input/output (I/O) devices, 158
Integral uniformity (IU), 150
Interaction of charged particles with matter
bremsstrahlung radiations, 69
linear energy transfer, 66, 67
positron annihilation, 70
range, 68, 69
specic ionization, 66
Interaction of γ-radiations with matter
Compton scattering, 71–72
pair production, 72, 73
photodisintegration, 74
photoelectric effect, 70, 71
Raleigh scattering, 73, 74
Interaction of neutrons with
matter, 78
Internal conversion, 12–14, 16, 17, 19, 398
Intersocietal Commission on Accreditation for
Nuclear Medicine Laboratories
(ICANL), 244, 245
Intrinsic efciency, 108, 109, 398
Intrinsic resolution, 129, 130, 398
Iodine escape peak, 103–104
Ion, 398
Ion chamber survey meter, 84, 85
Ionization, 5, 6, 65, 66, 70, 71
Ionization chambers
dose calibrator, 85, 86
ion chamber survey meter, 84, 85
pocket dosimeter, 88
Isobars, 8, 398
Isomeric states, 8, 12
Isomeric transitions (ITs), 11, 12, 16, 398
Isomers, 8, 9, 398
Isotones, 8, 9, 398
Isotopes, 8, 398
Iterative OSEM method with attenuation
correction, 188
Iterative reconstruction, 184–188, 196
K
Karlshrue Nuclide Chart, 8, 9
K-shell binding energy, 5
L
Lanthanum bromide (LaBr3) detector, 94
Large language model (LLM), 267, 399
Legal implication of AI, 274
Lethal damage, 334
Leukemia, 340, 342
Licenses, 363–364
Light-emitting diode (LED), 143
Line of response (LOR), 228, 229
Line of stability, 7
Linear amplier, 99
Linear attenuation coefcient, 75–77
Linear energy transfer (LET), 66, 67, 328,
Linear no-threshold (LNT) theory, 341,
Linearity, 150
Linear-quadratic model, 328
Line-spread-function (LSF), 135–136, 138
Liquid crystal display (LCD), 165
Liquid drop model, 6
Liquid scintillation counter, 105–107
Lithium uoride (LiF), 361
Low energy all purpose (LEAP) collimators,
Low-pass lters, 183
L-shell binding energy, 6
Lutetium oxyorthosilicate (LSO), 94–96, 98
Lutetium yttrium oxyorthosilicate (LYSO)
Lysosomes, 317
M
Machine learning (ML), 278–282, 284, 399
Magic numbers, 6
Magnetic quantum number, 4
Manganese-activated calcium uoride, 361
Mass attenuation coefcient, 75
Mass defect, 7, 399
Mass number,
Maximum likelihood-expectation
Mean life (τ), 24, 399
Mean range, 69
Medical cyclotrons, 49
Medical internal radiation dose (MIRD), 296
Meiosis, 317
Metastable state, 8, 12, 399
Minimum detectable activity (MDA), 43
329, 399
342, 385
132, 133
detector, 94, 96
algorithms, 258
computer vision, 260, 261
decision tree, 259
random forest, 259
recognition, 259
supervised and unsupervised, 258
SVM, 260
6, 8, 399
maximization (MLEM)
method, 185–188
Index
413
Mirion technologies, 362
Mitochondria, 317
Mobile nuclear medicine service, 367
Moderators, 51
Modulation transfer function (MTF), 136–138,
399, 402
Monthly checks, 151
99
99m
Mo–
Tc generator, 59–62, 376
99m
Tc-labeled diisopropyliminodiacetic acid
(DISIDA), 29
Multiple gated acquisition (MUGA), 163
N
13
N-ammonia, 209
National Voluntary Laboratory Accreditation
Program (NVLAP), 362
NaI (Tl) detector, 94, 98, 107, 112, 120, 121
Natural language processing (NLP), 267, 399
NEMA protocol, 149
Neonatal death, 345
Neutrino (ν), 399
Neutron capture or (n,γ) reaction, 52
(n, f) reaction, 51–52
Nine-point smoothing, 177, 178
No carrier added (NCA), 50, 51, 399
Noncircular orbit (NCO), 174
Noncolinearity, 240, 241
Nonlinearity, 141–142
Nonoparalyzable system, 111, 112
Nonspecic life-shortening, 344
Nonuniformity, 140–142, 151
Non-uranium production of
99
Mo, 52
Normalization factors, 233, 234
Nuclear binding energy, 7–8
Nuclear force, 7
Nuclear medicine, AI
applications
bone scintigraphy, 284–285
cardiovascular disease, 284
oncology, 282–284
thyroid imaging, 285
ChatGPT, 285, 286
data acquisition (see Data acquisition)
drug development, 286–288
workow, 277, 278
image acquisition, 279
image processing,
279–280
interpretation, 280, 281
medical reporting, 281
scheduling, 278
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)
regulations, 353
Nucleon, 3, 6–8, 400
Nucleus, structure of, 6–7
Nuclide, 8, 9
Nyquist frequency, 180–183
O
Occupational exposure, 336
Oncogenes, 339
Oncology, 282–284
OpenAI ChatGPT-4, 286
OpenAI’s ChatGPT, 251
Operating system (OS), 158
Optically stimulated luminescence
(OSL), 362
Ordered subset expectation maximization
(OSEM), 186–188
Organ, critical, 400
Organic scintillators, 93
Organ, target, 400
Oxygen, 331, 332
Oxygen enhancement ratio (OER), 331
Oxygen tension, 331
P
Pair production, 72–75, 400
Parallel hole collimator, 122
Paralyzable system, 111, 112
Parenchymal cells, 344
Partial ring x-ray unit, 190
Partial-volume effect, 198–202
center of rotation, 199–200
sampling, 200
scattering, 201–202
Particle emission, 49
Parzen lter, 183
Patient motion, 147
Pediatric dosage, 308, 310–312
Peeling/stripping method, 24
Photocathode, 98, 101, 106
Photodisintegration reaction, 74
Photoelectric effect, 70–75, 400
Photoelectron, 70
Photofraction, 400
Photomultiplier (PM) tube, 98, 99, 123
Photon attenuation correction,
193–194, 234–236
Photonuclear reaction, 74
Photopeak, 101–104, 107–109, 113, 114, 139,
143, 145–149, 203
Photopeak efciency/photofraction, 109
Physical half-life, 25
414
Index
Picture Archiving and Communication System
(PACS), 167, 168
Pinhole collimators, 121
Planned special procedures, 356
PM tubes, 213
Pocket dosimeter, 88
Point-spread-functions (PSF), 202
Poisson distribution, 39, 40
Positron (β
+
)-decay, 17–18
Positron annihilation, 70
Positron annihilation peak, 104
Positron emission tomography (PET), 171,
184, 188, 189, 197, 198
accreditation, 244–247
coincidence time window, 209, 213–216
CT scan, 214, 216–218
mobile, 227
data acquisition
coincidence event, 228
LOR, 228, 229
pulses, 228
sinogram, 229, 230
TOF, 230, 231
two-dimensional vs
. three-
dimensional, 231–233
whole-body scan, 229
dead time, 239
detectors in
block detector, 211–213
conguration, 211
GSO, 210
LSO and LYSO, 210
semiconductors, 211
dual-head and triple-head gamma
cameras, 227
magnetic resonance imaging
advantage of, 219
attenuation correction, 236
commercial, 223, 224, 226
principles of, 219–223
quality control tests, 243, 244
micro-PET scanner, 227
performance of
sensitivity, 241, 242
spatial resolution, 240, 241
photon attenuation correction, 234–236
PM tubes and pulse-height analyzers, 213
quality control tests, 242, 243
radial elongation, 239
random coincidences, 236, 237
reconstruction, 233
scatter coincidences, 237, 238
Potassium iodide (KI), 382
Potentially lethal dose (PLD), 335
Preamplier, 99
Precision, 400
Pregnant women, 349
Primary electrons, 65
Principal quantum number, 3, 4
Prompt, 400
Propagation of errors, 37–39
Proportional counters, 82, 89
Proportional region, 82, 89
Pulse pileup, 111, 112
Pulse-height analyzer (PHA), 93, 98, 100, 105,
107, 109, 111–116, 124, 130, 134,
138, 139, 148, 213
Pulse-height variation, 141
Q
Quality control (QC) tests
CT scanner, 204–205
MR scanner, 243, 244
PET scanner, 242, 243
SPECT
daily tests, 203
weekly tests, 204
Quality factors (QF), 294, 400
Quasithreshold dose, 327
Quenching, 83, 89, 106–107
R
Rad, 292, 293, 400
Radial elongation, 239
Radiation biology
cells (see Cells)
diagnostic radiology and nuclear
medicine, 347–349
pregnant women, 349
Radiation counting
accuracy, 35
average, or mean value, 36
chi-square (χ
2
) test, 41–43
evaluation of diagnostic tests, 44–45
Gaussian distribution, 40–41
minimum detectable activity, 43
Poisson distribution, 39, 40
precision, 35
propagation of errors, 37–39
standard deviation, 36
standard deviation of a count rate, 36
systematic and random errors, 35
Index
415
Radiation damage, 334, 335
Radiation dosimetry
dose calculation
cumulative radiation, 296, 297
EDE, 301, 307–309
factors, 295
factors affecting Ã, 298
pediatric dosage, 308, 310–312
SI units, 300–307
S values, 298, 299
units of
quality factors, 294
rad, 292, 293
rem, 293
roentgen, 291
sievert, 294
weighting factors, 293, 294
Radiation exposure, 335, 336, 348
accidental, 382–383
Radiation-induced hereditary effects, 337
Radiation phobia, 385–386
Radiation protection, 363
ALARA program, 357
caution signs and labels, 355, 356
denition, 354
occupational dose limits, 356
personnel monitoring
conditions, 360
lm badge, 361
OSL, 362
pocket dosimeter, 361
TLD, 361
principles of radiation protection, 357
activity, 360
distance, 357–359
shielding, 359
time, 357
RAM, 353
recommendations and guidelines, 353
Radiation protection ofcer (RPO), 387
Radiation regulation
accidental radiation exposure, 382–383
bioassay, 374
dirty bomb
sources of, 382
European Union (EU)
Regulations, 386–388
licenses, 363–364
medical uses of radioactive materials, 365
applications, amendments, and
notications, 366
authority and responsibilities, 366
radiation phobia, 385–386
radioactive patients,
verication card, 384–385
radioactive packages, 374, 375
radioactive spill, 377
radioactive waste disposal
authorized recipient, 376
decay-in-storage method, 376
discharge in sewerage system, 376
133
Xe and
127
Xe, 377
recordkeeping, 377–379
RSC, 364–365
RSO, 365
supervision
ambient radiation exposure rate, 369
by-product material, 367–374
calibration of survey instruments, 369–370
calibration, transmission, and reference
sources, 368
embryo/fetus, 371
labeling of vials and syringes, 368
measurement of dosages, 367, 368
medical event, report and notication,
370, 371
mobile nuclear medicine service, 367
possession of sealed sources, 368
written directives, 367
transportation of radioactive
materials, 379–381
Radiation Safety Committee (RSC), 364–365
Radiation Safety Ofcer (RSO), 365, 366
Radiation weighting factor (W
), 293, 294, 401
r
Radioactive decay
alpha (α)-decay, 15
−
beta (β
)-decay, 15–17
electron capture, 18–19
effective half-life, 25
general equation, 21–23
half-life, 23, 24
mean-life, 24
gamma (γ)-ray emission, 12
internal conversion, 13–14
isomeric transition, 12–14
positron (β
+
)-decay, 17–18
spontaneous ssion, 11
Radioactive materials (RAM), 353, 356
Radioactive packages, 374, 375
Radioactive spill, 377
Radioactive waste disposal
133
Xe and
127
Xe, 377
authorized recipient, 376
decay-in-storage method, 376
sewerage system, 376
Radiofrequency pulse (RF), 219–221
416
Index
RadioGenix
®
system, 52
Radiological Dispersal Device (RDD),
381, 382
Radiology Information System (RIS), 167
Radiomics, 266
Radionuclide, 8, 21–27, 29–31, 336, 359
cyclotron, 47–50
equation for production of nuclides, 56–59
generators, 59–61
99
99m
Mo–
non-uranium production of
Tc Generator, 60–61
99
Mo, 52
reactor, 50–52
ssion/(n, f) reaction, 51–52
neutron capture or (n,γ) reaction, 52
target and its processing, 55
Radioprotectors, 333, 334
Radiosensitivity
chemicals, 331
differentiated and undifferentiated
cells, 326
dose rate, 329, 330
irradiation, 327
LET, 329
RBCs, 326
stage of cell cycle, 330
types of, 326
Radiosensitizers
misonidazole, 333
oxygen, 331, 332
pyrimidines, 333
Raleigh scattering, 73, 74
Ramp lter, 181, 182, 202
Random access memory (RAM), 157
Random coincidences, 236, 237
Random errors, 35, 36, 41
Random forest, 259
Range (R), 68, 401
82
Rb-RbCl, 209
Reactor-produced radionuclides, 50–52
ssion/(n, f) reaction, 51–52
neutron capture or (n,γ) reaction, 52
Read-only memory (ROM), 157
Reconstruction lters, 182
Recordkeeping, 377–379
Rectangular bar phantom, 135
Rectied linear unit (ReLU), 255, 401
Recurrent Neural Network (RNN), 264
,
265, 401
Region of continuous discharge, 83
Region of limited proportionality, 82, 83
Region of recombination, 81
Region of saturation, 81, 82, 89
Regions of interest (ROI), 205
Relative biologic effectiveness (RBE), 401
Rem, 293
Repetition time (TR), 222
Reproductive organs, 344
Restitution, 322
Restricted area, 354
Ribonucleic acid (RNA), 317
Ribosomes, 317
Roentgen, 291, 401
Roentgen equivalent man (rem), 401
Row-action maximum likelihood algorithm
(RAMLA), 188
S
Sample volume effect, 115
Saturation factor, 56
Scatter coincidences, 237, 238
Scatter resolution (R
), 129, 133–134
s
Scintillation camera, see Gamma camera
Scintillation decay time, 93, 95–97
Secular equilibrium, 33–34
Sensitivity, 44, 131, 132, 139–140, 401
Septum, 131
Sewerage system, 376
Shallow-dose equivalent (H
), 354, 401
s
Shell model, 6
Shepp–Logan lter, 183
Shielding method, 88
Siemens Healthereen SYMBIA Pro specta
SPECT CT scanner, 191, 193
Sievert (Sv), 294, 401
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), 230
Silicon photomultipliers (SiPM), 213
Simple backprojection, 174, 177, 178,
180, 181
Single-escape peak, 104
Single-photon avalanche photodiodes
(SPADs), 213
Single photon emission computed
tomography (SPECT)
attenuation correction methods, 194–197
data acquisition, 173–174
image reconstruction, 174–188
ltered backprojection, 177–184
iterative reconstruction,
184–188
simple backprojection, 174–177
partial-volume effect, 198–202
center of rotation, 199–200
sampling, 200
scattering, 201–202
performance of
contrast of images, 203
Index
417
high-count rates, 203
sensitivity, 202, 203
spatial resolution, 202
uniformity, 203
photon attenuation, 193–194
quality control tests
daily tests, 203
weekly tests, 204
SPECT scanner, 189–193
Single slice rebinning method (SSRB), 233
Size of lesion, 146
Slice position accuracy, 244
Slice thickness, 243
Smoothing lter, 177
Smoothing technique, 178
Solid scintillation counter
display or storage, 100
linear amplier, 99
NaI(Tl) detectors, 98
photomultiplier tube, 98, 99
preamplier, 99
pulse-height analyzer, 100
Solid scintillation detector
barium uoride detector, 95
BGO detector, 95
GSO detector, 95
LaBr
detector, 96
3
LSO detector, 95
LYSO detector, 96
NaI (Tl) detector, 94
properties of, 94
YAP detector, 96
YSO detector, 95
Solid-state or semiconductor detectors
CsI(Tl) detector, 97–98
CZT detector, 97
Germanium and silicon detector, 96–97
Somatic cells, 315
Somatic effects
breast cancer, 343
carcinogenesis, 339–341
cataractogenesis, 344
dose–response relationship, 341, 342
embryo and fetus, 345, 346
excess cancer risk, 342
leukemia, 342
nonspecic life-shortening, 344
reproductive organs, 344
skin, 343, 344
Spatial kernel, 178
Spatial resolution, 150, 240, 241, 402
collimator resolution, 130–133
denition, 129
edge packing, 142
evaluation of
bar phantom, 134–135
line-spread function, 135–136
modulation transfer function, 136–138
intrinsic, 129, 130
nonlinearity,
141–142
pulse-height variation, 141
scatter resolution, 133–134
sensitivity, 139, 140
specic activity, 26–29, 402
specic ionization (SI), 66, 402
specicity, 44
SPECT, 204
spermatogonia, 344
spillover/crosstalk contributions, 114
spin echo (SE), 222
spin quantum number, 4
spontaneous ssion, 11
spontaneous mutations, 346
stable nuclide, 9
standard deviation, 36, 40, 41, 43
standard deviation of a count rate, 36
standard ion chambers, 85
stochastic effects, 337
straggling of the ranges, 68
structure Query Language (SQL), 251
sublethal damage (SLD), 334, 335
successive decay equations
general equation, 30
secular equilibrium, 33–34
transient equilibrium, 30–33
sulfhydryl groups (-SH), 333
supervised ML systems, 258
supervision
ambient radiation exposure rate, 369
by-product material, 367–374
calibration of survey
instruments, 369–370
calibration, transmission, and reference
sources, 368
embryo/fetus, 371
labeling of vials and syringes, 368
measurement of dosages, 367, 368
medical event, report and notication,
370, 371
mobile nuclear medicine service, 367
possession of sealed sources, 368
written directives, 367
uniformity, 140
Support vector machine (SVM), 260
Suppressor genes, 339, 340
System Internationale (SI) units, 26,
300–307, 358
Systematic errors, 35, 41