keeping in mind the principle of containment of radioactivity. Survey and wipe tests must be performed after decontamination. The RSO will investigate the accident and recommend corrective action if a major spill occurs.

pass certain tests such as the drop test, corner drop test, compression test, and

and then repeated every three years. The training is provided by the hazmat employer or other public or private sources, and a record of training must be made.

A dirty bomb, also called a Radiological Dispersal Device (RDD), is a mix of explo­sive, such as dynamite, with radioactive materials. After the explosion, in addition to the immediate devastating effects of the explosive material causing injury and property damage, radioactive dust and smoke spread the radioactive contamination into the surrounding areas. Radioactive dust and smoke, if inhaled, can cause ill health effects. The use of dirty bombs by perpetrators is to spread radioactive con­tamination and create fear and panic, more than anything else. Subsequent decon­tamination could involve considerable time and cost.

The whole-body exposure causes various acute radiation syndromes that have been discussed earlier in this chapter. These syndromes include hematopoietic, gas­trointestinal, and cerebrovascular syndromes, depending on the absorbed doses. Although cerebrovascular syndromes occur with 10,000rem (100Sv), and result in

death, the hematopoietic and gastrointestinal syndromes may be managed by bone marrow transplantation and other prophylactic treatment.

When a RDD explodes, radioactive material may be airborne and contaminate food and water. Internal contamination can occur from the ingestion of contami­nated food and water, inhalation of the contaminated air, and diffusion through the skin or wounds. The principle of the treatment of internal contamination primarily involves dilution, displacement by nonradioactive material, complex formation, and blockage. In the case of internal contamination with radioiodine (e.g., incidences of fallout from a nuclear explosion or a nuclear reactor accident), both the NRC and FDA have approved the use of potassium iodide (KI) as a preventive measure. Such use of KI is intended to block the thyroid from trapping

1. If you are outside and close to the explosion of a dirty bomb, cover the nose and

After the September 11, 2001 attack on the World Trade Center in NewYork, numerous security measures have been adopted by the US Federal Government. The Department of Homeland Security was authorized to implement and monitor different aspects of the security measures against radiation. Security checks of air­line passengers, background checks of many visitors, and monitoring suspected ter­rorist groups are some of the examples. In view of the concerns over the use of dirty bombs by miscreants, the Homeland Security has established checkpoints at various strategic locations such as airports, tunnels, mass transit, bridges, border crossing points, historical monuments, landmarks, and the like, to monitor the transport of RDDs by using radiation detectors.

One pitfall of this measure is that patients who received radioactive materials for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes may trigger the monitors while passing through these checkpoints and undergo undue hassle with authorities to provide proof that the radioactivity was really from medical uses. These incidents have been reported all over the country. In 2003, the NRC issued a guidance “NRC Information Notice 2003–2022: Heightened Awareness for Patients Containing Detectable Amounts of Radiation from Medical Administration” to address this situation. In essence, according to this guidance, if a patient has detectable radioactivity due to a nuclear medicine test or a therapeutic implant, the licensee is asked to explain to the patient that during commuting, the internal activity may trigger the monitoring equipment installed in specic areas required by US Homeland Security Administration. It further recommends that the licensee considers providing a verication card with licensee’s address, a contact phone number, and an assurance that the level of activ­ity from the study poses no danger to the public and is allowed by NRC medical use regulations. Based on this, a verication card is designed containing information such as the name of the patient, type of radionuclide administered, date of study, and a contact number. The patient is recommended to carry the card as a proof of radio­active examination for a period of time (discussed below) till the activity is low enough not to trigger the monitoring equipment.

People face risk of cancer, injuries, and even death from day-to-day living activi­ties, such as driving, smoking cigarettes, drinking alcohol, eating food, and breath­ing air, in addition to hazardous job-related activities. Thirty-three percent of the population will contract cancer just from these activities without any radiation exposure, and 22% will die from natural causes (American Cancer Society, 2003). If the population is exposed to 1rem (10 mSv) of radiation exposure, the risk of cancer increases only by 0.1% and half of them (0.05%) will die, which is quite negligible (BEIR VII, 2005). Based on these arguments, it can be said that although nuclear explosions can be a cause for grave concern, low-dose radiation from medi­cal facilities, natural background, and the like, are fairly safe relative to the hazards of different living activities, and the risk from such radiation exposure is small.

In 2013, all previous directives were repealed and a consolidated Council Directive 2013/59/Euroatom was introduced. These directives are similar to NRC 10CFR20 regulations in the USA and address all aspects of radiation protection to individuals involved with radiation. They include exposure limits to exposed work­ers (article 9), minors (article 11), pregnant women and nursing mothers (article