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Файл:Биотехнология = Biotechnology. Учебное пособие по английскому языку
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3. The key to every membrane pro-
cess is the membrane, which provides selectivity for the components
of interest which must also allow
enough stuff to permeate, give
a high enough flux for the process to
be economic. We are seeking to develop new membrane materials that
combine good selectivity with high
flux. Membrane materials can be divided into two groups. Those that
like water, hydrophilic, and those
that like organic compounds,
organophilic. Both types of membrane can be useful in industrial biotechnology and for both types of
membrane new materials are being
developed at the University of Manchester. For hydrophilic membranes,
a new material of interest is graphene
oxide. Rahul Nair, working with the
Nobel Prize winner Andre Geim, in
our school of physics, showed that
multilayer graphene oxide membranes, could let water through as
easily as through an open surface.
But it's in the dry state that they were
impermeable to even the smallest
gases. For organophilic membranes,
we are working with a new class of
polymers called polymers of intrinsic
microporosity or PIMs that were invented in Manchester by Neil McKeown and myself.
c)
41
4. The basic idea of a PIM is that if
we design the polymer backbone so
that it is like a molecular scale ladder, and build in something that
makes it twist and turn into a contorted shape. We have a polymer
that cannot pack together, and fills
space in the solid state. It ends up
with lots of little spaces that small
molecules can get into. It behaves
like a molecular sieve. The first
membrane forming PIM that was
synthesized, we called PIM-1.
d)
5. And PIMs really love organic
compounds, they have been shown
to be much better than other polymers at pulling neutral dyes out of
ethanol solution. In pervaporation,
PIMs can, for example, pull mostly
butanol out of a butanol water mixture.
e)
I. Read and give the title to the text.
Biomass includes a wide range of materials that produce a variety of products that are dependent upon the feedstock. For example, typical biomass
wastes include wood material (bark, chips, scraps, and saw dust), pulp and paper industry residues, agricultural residues, organic municipal material, sewage,
manure, and food processing by-products. Agricultural residues such as straws,
nut shells, fruit shells, fruit seeds, plant stalks and stover, green leaves, and mo-
PART C
42
lasses are potential renewable energy resources. Many developing countries
have a wide variety of agricultural residues in ample quantities. Large quantities
of agricultural plant residues are produced annually worldwide and are vastly
underutilized. Agricultural residues, when used a fuel, through direct combustion,
only a small percentage of their potential energy is available, due to inefficient
burners used. Current disposal methods for these agricultural residues have
caused widespread environmental concerns. For example, disposal of rice and
wheat straw by open-field burning causes air pollution. In addition, the widely
varying heat content of the different types of biomass varies widely and must be
taken into consideration when designing any conversion process.
Raw materials that can be used to produce biomass fuels are widely
available and arise from many different sources and in numerous forms. The
main basic sources of biomass material are (1) wood, including bark, logs, sawdust, wood chips, wood pellets, and briquettes; (2) high-yield energy crops,
such as wheat, that are grown specifically for energy applications; (3) agricultural crop and animal residues, like straw or slurry; (4) food waste, both domestic and commercial; and (5) industrial waste, such as waste wood products or
waste paper products.
Liquid biofuels (such as biodiesel, which is not typically produced through
the agency of petroleum biotechnology) and biobased chemicals include a wide
variety of products, some of which are well established and already commercialized to a significant extent and others that are emerging. Many products are
innovative in terms of manufacturing process or raw material, particularly those
that are produced using biocatalysis. These processes create biobased products,
or more specifically for this investigation, liquid biofuels and biobased chemicals. The most common liquid biofuel produced in the United States is ethyl alcohol, or ethanol, which is primarily manufactured from the starch portion of
corn kernels. Liquid biofuels and biobased chemicals include a wide variety of
products, some of which are well established and already commercialized to
43
a significant extent and others that are emerging. Many products are innovative
in terms of manufacturing process or raw material, particularly those that are
produced using biocatalysis.
The biomass industries (which use biotechnological concepts) are emerging
as a response to the declining global supply of cheap, easily extracted petroleum. There is also more public pressure for cleaner industrial practices, lower
greenhouse gas emissions, and transition to renewable raw materials. Biomassbased industries are an important part of the bioeconomy, which refers to
sustainable production, collection, and conversion of biomass into a range
of fuels and chemical products.
James G. Speight, Nour Shafik El-Gendy, 2018, pp. 77–78
II. Translate the following words and word combinations into Russian:
bark, chips, scraps, saw dust, pulp industry, sewage, straws, nut shells, fruit
shells, fruit seeds, plant stalks, stover, molasses, ample quantities, bark, logs,
sawdust, wood chips, wood pellets, briquettes, slurry, corn kernels, greenhouse
gas emissions, renewable raw materials.
III. Discuss the future of biomass fuels. Write a short essay about
the topic.
44
UNIT IV
ammonia
аммиак
Saturates
насыщенные углеводороды
fatty acid
жирная кислота; алифатическая кислота
Ketones
кетоны
Esters
сложные эфиры
susceptibility
восприимчивость; подверженность
Harness
приспосабливать
biorefining
биологическая переработка (процесс производства различных продуктов из биомассы
как сырья, аналогичный переработке сырой
нефти)
distillate yields
отгон
Nitrous
азотистый
GHG, greenhouse gas
парниковый газ
BIOTRANSFORMATION OF PETROLEUM CONSTITUENTS
PART A
I. Answer the questions:
1. What is biotransformation?
2. What does petroleum consist of?
3. What is biotransformation of crude oil constituents focused on?
45
II. Read the text and check the answers.
Biotransformation is the chemical modification (or modifications) made by an
organism on a chemical compound. If this modification ends in mineral compounds, such as carbon dioxide, CO2, water, H2O, or ammonia NH+, the biotransformation is regarded as being complete and is referred to as mineralization.
A modern refinery accepts a variety of different crude oils for processing,
which are blended prior to a variety of processing sequences. Thus petroleum
and petroleum products are mixtures of differing molecular species hydrocarbons and the constituents of these molecular categories are present in varied
proportions, resulting in high variability in petroleum and petroleum products.
In terms of bulk fractions, the resin constituents and the asphaltene constituents
are of interest (or notoriety) because these constituents generally resist degradation. During biotransformation, the constituents of petroleum and petroleum
products are subjected to physical and chemical processes such as evaporation
or oxidation, which produce changes in the composition of the crude oil.
The biotransformation of petroleum constituents is a complex process that
depends on the nature and on the amount of the hydrocarbons present. Petroleum hydrocarbons can be divided into four classes: the saturates, the aromatics,
resin constituents, and asphaltene constituents (phenols, fatty acids, ketones, esters, and porphyrins), and the resins (pyridines, quinolines, carbazoles, sulfoxides, and amides). Different factors influencing hydrocarbon degradation have
been reported. One of the important factors that limit biotransformation of
crude oil constituents is the availability to microorganisms and hydrocarbons
differ in their susceptibility to microbial attack. The susceptibility of hydrocarbons to microbial degradation can be generally ranked as follows: linear alkane
derivatives, branched alkane derivatives, low-molecular-weight aromatic derivatives, and cyclic alkane derivatives. Some compounds, such as the highmolecular-weight PNAs or PAHs may not be degraded at all.
At the time of writing, the predominant commercial practice of biotransformation of crude oil constituents has focused not on refining but primarily on
the remediation and cleanup of petroleum hydrocarbons in the environment.
Thus successful application of bioremediation technology to a contaminated
ecosystem requires knowledge of the characteristics of the site and the parameters that affect the microbial biotransformation of pollutants and it is from these
published works that a process for biorefining crude oil might be developed.
James G. Speight, Nour Shafik El-Gendy, 2018, pp. 78–79
46
III. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and phrases:
mineral compounds, ammonia, saturates, aromatics, phenols, fatty acids,
ketones, esters, porphyrins, pyridines, quinolines, carbazoles, sulfoxides,
amides, susceptibility, branched alkane derivatives, low-molecular-weight aromatic derivatives, linear alkane derivatives.
IV. Put the verbs into correct forms:
1) Biotransformation is the chemical modification (or modifications) … by
an organism on a chemical compound. (make)
2) The predominant commercial practice of biotransformation of crude oil
constituents has … not on refining but primarily on the remediation. (focus)
3) If this modification ends in mineral compounds, the biotransformation is
regarded as … complete. (be)
4) Successful application of bioremediation technology to a contaminated
ecosystem … knowledge of the characteristics of the site. (require)
5) A modern refinery accepts a variety of different crude oils for pro-
cessing, which are … prior to a variety of processing sequences. (blend)
6) During biotransformation, the constituents of petroleum and petroleum
products are … to physical and chemical processes. (subject)
7) Some compounds, such as the high-molecular-weight PNAs or PAHs
may not be … at all. (degrade)
8) Evaporation and oxidation … changes in the composition of the crude
oil. (produce)
V. Give definitions to the following words:
1) biotransformation;
2) oil refinery;
3) petroleum products;
4) remediation;
5) mineralization.
VI. Make a report on topic “Prospects of Biotransformation”.
47
PART B
I. Read and give the title to the text.
It is essential to recognize that the biotransformation of petroleum is dependent on the ability of the local microbiota to adapt to the different petroleum
constituents. The different structural and functional response of microbial subgroups to the different constituents confirms that the overall response of microbial entities is sensitive to petroleum composition. This suggests that the preferred response to the different constituents may be engineered by preexposure
of the microbes to representative chemicals. The controlled adaptation of microbes to a chemical is the basis of proactive bioremediation technology.
The premise being that microbial species adapted through a history of exposure to petroleum hydrocarbons is less severely impacted by microbial species with no such preexposure or adaptation. Indeed, the diversity of microbes
for the biotransformation of petroleum constituents may be significant but, in
the absence of a previous history of exposure to petroleum constituents,
the numbers of the microbes may be low due to lack of and prior stimulus and
the potential for adaptation.
The biotransformation of various petroleum-based pollutants is a sustainable
way to cleanup environments that have been contaminated by spill of crude oil
and/or crude oil products. This form of biotransformation (usually referred to as
bioremediation and/or biodegradation) harnesses the naturally occurring, microbial catabolic diversity to degrade, transform, or accumulate a huge range of
petroleum-based compounds including hydrocarbon derivatives and PAHs. Major methodological breakthroughs in recent years have enabled insights into biotransformation pathways and the ability of organisms to adapt to changing environmental conditions. Functional approaches are increasing the understanding of
the relative importance of different pathways and regulatory networks to the biotransformation of petroleum constituents in various environments and are accelerating the development and inception of biotransformation processes.
Organism that chemically transform crude oil have a specific order of
preference for compounds that are converted. Progressive degradation of crude
oil tends to remove saturated hydrocarbons first, concentrating heavy polar and
asphaltene components in the residual oil. This leads to decreasing crude oil
quality by lowering the API gravity while increasing (1) the viscosity,
(2) the sulfur content, and (3) the metal content. In addition to lowering reser-
48
voir recovery efficiencies, the economic value of the oil generally decreases
with biodegradation, owing to a decrease in refinery distillate yields and an increase in vacuum residua yields. Furthermore, biotransformation typically
leads to the formation of naphthene derivatives that increase the acidity of the
oil, typically measured as total acid number (TAN). An increase in the TAN
may further reduce the value of the crude oil in the reservoir and may contribute to production and downstream handling problems such as equipment corrosion and the formation of difficult-to-break emulsions.
James G. Speight, Nour Shafik El-Gendy, 2018, pp. 79–80
II. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and phrases:
local microbiota, microbial entities, bioremediation technology, petroleumbased compounds, residual oil, API gravity, viscosity, distillate yields, acidity,
saturated hydrocarbons.
III. Answer the questions:
1. What is the biotransformation of petroleum dependent on?
2. What does it suggest?
3. What is the basis of proactive bioremediation technology?
4. How does bioremediation work?
5. What is TAN?
6. What does an increase in TAN mean?
PART C
49
I. Watch video 4 and put parts of the text in the correct order.
1. Hello, my name is Patricia Thornley, and I am a professor in sustainable
energy systems at the Tyndall Center for Climate Change Research. I'm based
in the School of Mechanical, Aerospace, and Civil engineering at the University of Manchester. Most of the work that I do is in bioenergy. So today, we're
going to be talking about the challenges of making bioenergy development
sustainable. Challenges of sustainable bioenergy development. Climate
change is the biggest global challenge that mankind faces. Our current trajectory is likely to see global mean surface temperatures rise by at least two degrees centigrade by the end of this century. And that will result in the hottest
days in parts of the world being ten degrees centigrade hotter than today. Sea
level rises that will obliterate low lying states, agricultural productivity being
decimated in parts of the world where food security is already an issue, under
much higher frequency of extreme weather events, with well documented
consequences. The UK government has therefore committed to challenging
long-term targets to reduce our greenhouse gas emissions by 80 % by 2050.
These emissions are dominated by fossil fuel use for energy. And so switching to renewable energy provision is a key part of this strategy. There's also
a commitment to provide 15 % of UK energy consumption from renewables
by 2020.
2. For example, there will be carbon dioxide emissions released during
transport or nitrous oxide emissions released from soils while plants are
growing. And we generally carry out a hole system greenhouse gas balance to
access if bioenergy is really contributing to carbon reductions or not. Now biomass resource is very dependent on land availability, food production, industrial activity, and a whole host of other things. And we can model what this
might look like in the future, as has been done here by researchers at the University of Manchester.
3. Now as we saw a few moments ago, sustainability isn't just about the envi-
ronmental. There are social and economic impacts too. These can be pretty
wide ranging especially when we're dealing with biomass that may have been
produced overseas where it may be difficult to confirm the production conditions or where different working practices are prevalent.
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