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Файл:Биотехнология = Biotechnology. Учебное пособие по английскому языку
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VI. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and phrases:
1) metal constituents; 2) metalorganic bonds; 3) naphthenic acids soaps;
4) nonhydrocarbon compounds; 5) polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon derivatives;
6) crude oil biodegradation; 7) asphaltene constituents; 8) methine bridges;
9) four-member rings; 10) resin constituents.
VII. Give definitions to the following words:
1) crude oil;
2) nonhydrocarbon compounds;
3) trace elements;
4) hydrocarbon derivatives;
5) toxicity;
6) organic compounds;
7) heteroatoms;
8) source rock.
VIII. Match all compounds mentioned in the text into the correspon-
ding category:
1) organic compounds;
2) inorganic compounds.
PART B
I. Read the texts and find information about:
1) the potential of industrial biotechnology;
2) benefits of biotechnology;
3) application of biotechnology.
In spite of the complexity of the various crude oils (which is reservoir specific), industrial biotechnology, of which petroleum biotechnology is a part, is
one of the most promising new approaches to pollution prevention, resource
conservation, and cost reduction. It is often referred to as the third wave in biotechnology. If developed to the full potential, industrial biotechnology may
have a larger impact on the world than health care and agricultural biotechnology. The concept offers businesses a way to reduce costs and create new markets
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while protecting the environment. Also, since many of the products do not require the lengthy review times that drug products must undergo, it is a quicker,
easier pathway to the market. The application of biotechnology to industrial
processes is not only transforming how products are manufactured but is also
providing with new products that could not even be imagined a few years ago.
However, because industrial biotechnology is so new, its benefits are still not
well known or understood by industry, policymakers, or consumers.
From the initial inception of the concept, industrial biotechnology has integrated product improvements with pollution prevention. This is illustrated by
the way in which industrial biotechnology solved the phosphate water pollution
problems in the 1970s caused by the use of phosphates in laundry detergent.
Biotechnology companies developed enzymes that removed stains from clothing
better than phosphates, thus enabling replacement of a polluting material with
a nonpolluting biobased additive while improving the performance of the end
product. This innovation dramatically reduced phosphate-related algal blooms
in surface waters around the globe, and simultaneously enabled consumers
to get their clothes cleaner with lower wash water temperatures and concomitant energy savings.
Biotechnology can be used to design customized organisms that act as catalysts to efficiently convert a crude oil feedstock or a crude oil-derived product
into a desired molecule, such as butadiene, which can then be send to the petrochemical section of a refinery to produce other products. Recent innovations
enable biotechnologists to engineer these organisms and comprehensive end-toend processes so they can produce a wider range of chemical products.
Within the petroleum industry, industrial biotechnology can be used to (1)
create new products, such as biodegradable plastics; (2) integrate biomass with
petroleum-based feedstocks by processing biomass in biorefineries to produce
electricity, transport fuels, or chemicals; (3) modify existing processes and develop new processes, such as the use of biotransformation processes to reduce
the amount of environmentally harsh chemical products; and (4) reduce the environmental impact of manufacturing, such as the treatment of refinery waste
products on site rather than seeking off-site methods for the disposal of such
wastes.
James G. Speight, Nour Shafik El-Gendy, 2018, pp. 74
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II. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and phrases:
1) pollution prevention; 2) resource conservation; 3) laundry detergent;
4) biobased additive; 5) algal blooms; 6) end-to-end processes; 7) biodegradable plastics; 8) environmentally harsh chemical products; 9) refinery waste
products; 10) on site; 11) off-site; 12) disposal.
III. Answer the questions:
1. What impact can industrial biotechnology have?
2. What can industrial biotechnology offer businesses?
3. Are the benefits known by industry, policymakers, or consumers?
4. How did industrial biotechnology integrate product improvements with
pollution prevention in 1970s?
5. How can industrial biotechnology be used within the petroleum indus-
try?
IV. Discuss advantages and prospects of industrial biotechnology using
the following words and word combinations:
pollution prevention, resource conservation, cost reduction, new products,
benefits, product improvements, convert into a desired molecule, integrate biomass, produce electricity, transport fuels, or chemicals, biotransformation processes, reduce the impact.
PART C
I. Read and give the title to the text.
Historically, industrial biotechnology actually dates back to at least
7000 BC when various cultures used fermentation to produce alcoholic beverages (wine and beer). Over time, mankind's knowledge of fermentation increased, enabling the production of cheese, yogurt, vinegar, and other food
products. In the 1800s, Louis Pasteur proved that fermentation was the result of
microbial activity. Then in 1928, Sir Alexander Fleming extracted penicillin
from mold. In the 1940s, large-scale fermentation techniques were developed to
make industrial quantities of this wonder drug. Not until after World War II,
however, did the biotechnology revolution begin, giving rise to modern industrial biotechnology.
Since that time, industrial biotechnology has produced enzymes for use in
our daily lives and for the manufacturing sector. For instance, meat tenderizer is
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an enzyme and some contact lens cleaning fluids contain enzymes to remove
Highlights Timeline of the History of Biotechnology
Pre-Christian Era
7000 BC
6000 BC
4000 BC
250 BC
100 BC
The Chinese discover fermentation (beer making).
Babylonians used yeast to make beer.
The Egyptians baked leavened bread using yeast.
The Greeks fermented grapes to make wine.
Chinese use chrysanthemum as a natural insecticide.
Pre-20th Century
1663
First recorded description of living cells by Robert Hooke.
1675
Antoine van Leeuwenhoek discovers and describes bacteria and
protozoa.
1798
Edward Jenner uses first viral vaccine to inoculate against smallpox.
1862
Louis Pasteur discovers the bacterial origin of fermentation.
1877
Robert Koch develops a technique for staining bacteria for identification.
20th Century
1928
Alexander Fleming discovered that a mold could stop the duplication of bacteria.
1942
Penicillin is mass-produced in microbes for the first time.
1950
The first synthetic antibiotic is created.
1953
James D. Watson and Francis Crick describe the structure of
DNA.
1974
Scientists invent the first biocement for industrial applications.
21st Century
2001 et seq.
Expansion of fermentation to produce biobased fuels, such as bioethanol.
sticky protein deposits. In the main, industrial biotechnology involves the microbial production of enzymes, which are specialized proteins. These enzymes
have evolved in nature to be super-performing biocatalysts that facilitate and
speed-up complex biochemical reactions. These enzyme catalysts are what
make industrial biotechnology such a powerful new technology.
James G. Speight, Nour Shafik El-Gendy, 2018, pp. 74–75
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II. Give Russian equivalents to the following words and phrases:
Student's A questions
Student's B questions
Who discovered fermentation?
When did the Greeks fermente grapes
to make wine?
What did Robert Hooke first record in
1663?
What did Louis Pasteur discover in
1862?
What did Alexander Fleming discover 1928?
What did James D. Watson and Francis Crick describe in 1953?
What did Babylonians use to make
beer?
When did Chinese use chrysanthemum as a natural insecticide?
What did Antoine van Leeuwenhoek
discover in 1675?
What did Robert Koch develop in
1877?
When was the first synthetic antibiotic
created?
When was the first biocement for industrial applications invented?
1) date back; 2) BC; 3) beverages; 4) vinegar; 5) cleaning fluids; 6) yeast;
7) chrysanthemum; 8) viral vaccine; 9) smallpox; 10) mold; 11) biocement;
12) expansion.
III. Work in pairs. Study Highlights Timeline of the History of Bio-
technology and answer the questions without looking at the table. Your
partner will check the answers.
V. Watch the first part of video 2 and put the text in the order you
hear.
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A. Now, enzymes can be divided into different types of reaction classes
depending on the precise chemistry that they catalyze. These for example,
may be known as oxidoreductases, transferases, hydrolases, lyases, or isomerases. And what you can see on this slide is a three-dimensional representation of selected enzyme molecules that have been solved using techniques,
such as, crystallographic approaches, where, we can get an appreciation of
how this amino acid sequence is folded up to define the overall threedimensional structure of the enzyme.
B. Enzyme catalytic cycles are multistep catalytic cycles. They involve
the binding of reactants in the so-called enzyme active site. So, substrates or
reactants are assembled within the active site where the chemical catalysis can
take place. The second part of the catalytic cycle is the process of bond making and bond breaking, the so-called catalytic part of the reaction cycle. And
then products are then released from the active site at the end of the catalytic
cycle to enable another round of catalysis to then proceed following substrate
binding.
C. Now, many of these processes are facilitated by the natural flexibility,
conformational flexibility, of enzyme molecules. This conformational flexibility is often required to optimally position substrates in the enzyme active
site, and also to provide an optimal environment for catalysis, for example,
through the exclusion of water from the active site.
D. So how are enzymes made? Well, they're made by the natural processes in living organisms through a process called transcription and translation. Transcription is the production of an RNA copy of the DNA code for
a specific protein or enzyme catalyzed by an enzyme itself called RNA polymerase. Translation is the process in which a ribosome reads the transcript
and links together the amino acids in the correct sequence to define the overall
structure of the protein.
E. Proteins are made by other proteins following the code that's present
in the DNA genetic blueprint. The code, of course, is universal, and therefore,
if we take a gene from one organism, it can be transcribed and translated in
another organism, which again, is a key part of the process in reprogramming,
if you like, biological organisms to express enzymes in different environments.
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F. In this first module, we're going to take a look at the general properties
of enzymes. Enzymes, of course, are critical to the existence of life, but
they're also key enablers in the industrial biotechnology area. So what are enzymes? Enzymes are protein catalysts and they speed up the rate of chemical
reactions in living organisms. And of course, they're encoded by the DNA
that dictates the sequence of amino acids in a protein molecule. These are
then folded up into a precise secondary and tertiary structure, to define
the overall structure of the protein, or in this case our enzyme catalyst. Now,
the protein or enzyme catalyst can also contain a number of small molecules
called coenzymes. In this case, these might be metal ions or small organic
groups that are involved also in the reaction chemistry catalyzed by enzyme
molecules.
G. If we think about that, what that means is that in the absence of an enzyme, many reactions would take longer than the age of the universe. Now,
some enzymes require small cofactors or coenzymes associated with the protein to facilitate the reaction. These are small molecules, some of them are
known as hemes or flavins, or indeed other prosthetic groups such as metal
ions, which are bound in the active site of the enzyme.
H. There are various models of enzyme catalysis that have been advanced over the years that include this flexible behavior of enzyme molecules. One is the so-called induced fit model of catalysis, where an exposure
of an enzyme to a substrate, or the analogy would be a key, causes the active
site of the enzyme, or the lock, to change shape in order to allow the enzyme
and substrate to bind forming an enzyme-substrate complex. And this is
demonstrated with a simple cartoon here on the right where we have the perfect fit of a lock and key shown on the left, and the analogous situation
whereby a substrate molecule is nicely fitting into the active site of an enzyme
shown on the right.
I. Enzymes are of course, nature's catalysts. If we have no enzymes, then
we have no life. And most biochemical reactions would not occur under the
mild conditions that we find within a cell. Enzymes have a remarkable ability
of enhancing the rate of a reaction by typically in the order of 10 to the power
of 15, up to the maximum, around about 10 to the power of 23.
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VI. Discuss enzymes and their properties using information presented
on the pictures.
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1. Enzymes are ideal catalysts for the
production of fine chemicals and
pharmaceuticals due to their relatively
mild reaction conditions under which
they operate, and also because of the
very high catalytic rates that they support and the high degree of reactant
specificity. This, therefore, maps very
nicely into the green chemistry agenda, where industrial biotechnology
can reduce, for example, the production of the accumulation of toxic
waste products. We can have energy
efficient processes. And we're very
much using natural bioprocesses for
the production of a whole range of
finer specialty chemicals using biological catalysis.
а)
VII. Watch the second part of video 2 and match the text with the
corresponding picture.
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2. Use of enzymes in biotechnology
of course is not new. Pre-1970s, enzymes were being used in a number of
classical production methods, for
example fermentation processes. Purified enzymes were used in selected
industrial processes. And the properties of a number of enzymes were
being modified through chemical
treatment. Much took off in the 1980s
as we ushered in the molecular biology era, where through the ability to
clone genes and genetically change
their sequence, then ushered in the
protein engineering era, where we can
modify in a very directed way the
properties of a biological catalyst.
And we can also get an appreciation
of how those manipulations can alter
the overall structure of the protein
molecule, and therefore, it's catalytic
ability, using techniques such as x-ray
crystallography. In the post-genomics
and genomics era, post 2000, what we
now see are enzymes being used extensively in metabolic engineering
processes and industrial biotechnology. We're also seeing the development
of synthetic biology, and enzymes
played a major role here in the bespoke design of biological organisms
toward industrial processes, and even
the design of artificial organisms.
в)
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