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Файл:HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE = История английского языка.pdf
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Здесь имя сделав, взвился вверх,
Побед одержан мною ряд,
Здесь люди мне дороже всех –
Жена и сын в могиле спят.
Здесь, где привычка, горе, труд,
Где старость, память и любовь,
Что приковали меня тут,
Где проливал свою я кровь.
Позволь Британии служить,
Дай мне любое порученье:
Да хоть болото осушить,
Дорогу строить из каменьев.
Иль прикажи мне охранять
Границ английских и шотландских;
Иль местным войском управлять,
В суровых средах здесь спартанских.
Посол, я со слезами прихожу,
Что буду в Риме делать я?
Ты отмени приказ, прошу,
Ведь здесь душа и жизнь моя!
The Germanic Settlement in Britain
After the Romans left Britain the Celts remained independent
but not for so long. In the middle of the 5th century Britain was
conquered by the Germanic tribes. The story of this invasion was
described by a monk Bede by name. According to Bede the
invaders came in 449, they were led by two Germanic kings
Hengist and Horsa. First they came to Britain as an ally to the
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British king Vortigern to help him in his war against the Picts.
But soon they changed their mind and began a real invasion.
The invaders belonged to three West-Germanic tribes: they
were the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes. The first wave of the
invaders were the Jutes. They came from the northern territories
of the modern Denmark and occupied the extreme south-east of
England and the Isle of Wight. The second wave – the Saxons
came from the territories between the mouths of the rivers Rhine
and the Elbe (the territory of modern Saxonia). In Britain they
settled on the southern coast and on both sides of the river
Thames. According to their location they were called the West
Saxons, the West Saxons and the East Saxons. The last to come
were the Angles, who had inhabited the valley the Elbe and the
southern part of modern Denmark. In Britain they occupied the
territories between the Wash and the Humber (modern the Tiss)
and to the north of the Humber.
When the settlers came to Britain they met the strong
resistance of the Celts. But the Celts were not strong enough and
finally found their refuge in Cornwell Peninsular, Wales and
northern parts of Britain. Some of the Celts crossed the sea and
settled in France in the province later called Britony.
By the end of the 6th century and the beginning of the 7th
century the new settlers had formed 7 kingdoms, which existed
for about two hundred years. In the southern and the southeastern parts of the country the Saxons formed 3 kingdoms:
Wessex (the land of the West Saxons), Essex (the land of the
East Saxons) and Sussex (the land of the South Saxons). Farther
to the north the territory was occupied by the Angles who also
formed 3 kingdoms: Mercia (between the Wash and the
Humber), East Anglia (to the north of Essex), and Northumbria
(to the north of the river Humber). As for the Jutes they formed
one kingdom Kent in the extreme south-east of the Island.
All these kingdoms were hostile to each other and they
constantly fought for the superior power on the island.
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Linguistic situation
The Germanic tribes who settled in Britain in the 5th-6th
centuries spoke closely-related dialects which belonged to the
West-Germanic subgroup. On the early stages of their
development in Britain these dialects remained disunited but the
boundaries between these dialects were uncertain and probably
movable. However, the conventional line that divides these
dialects may be drawn along the boundaries of the 7 kingdoms.
In the 9th century the political and cultural center moved to
Wessex. Culture and education made great progress there.It
brought the West-Saxon dialect to the fore. Toward the 11th
century this dialect developed into a bookish type of the
language probably served as the language of writing for all the
English-speaking people.
Conversion of the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity
When the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes settled in Britain
they were pagans. That means that they worshiped many gods:
the God of the Sun, the Moon, the Trees, the Sea and other
pagan gods. Some evidence of this belief may be observed in the
English language of today.
OE MnE
MonandæƷ (Mona – the God of the Moon) Monday
TīwesdæƷ (Tiw – the God of War) Tuesday
WodnesdæƷ (Woden – the God of the Wind) Wednesday
ÞunresdæƷ (Thor – the God of Thunder) Thursday
FriӡedæƷ (Freyja – the Goddess of Love) Friday
SæternesdæƷ (Saturn – the God of Agriculture) Saturday
SunnandæƷ (the day of the God of the Sun) Sunday
In 597 Pope Gregory I sent some missionaries to England in
order to spread Christianity among the Germanic conquerors and
to include Britain into the sphere of his political influence.
In the 7th century Christianity spread all over England. The
Latin language at that time was an international language of the
church in Europe. As a result of the new ties with Rome Latin
was introduced in England as the language of the church. This
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had an important consequence for the English language: it
adopted a considerable number of words which directly or
indirectly were connected with religious and church notions.
This group of the Latin words in the English language
constitutes the Second Layer of the Latin Borrowings.
Latin OE MnE
Episcopus > biscop > bishop,
Apostolus > apostol > apostle,
Monacus > munuc > monk,
Diabolus > deofol > devil.
Scandinavian Invasion and Its Influence on the
Development of the English Language (VIII – XI centuries)
In the end of the VIII century and during the XI and X
centuries Western Europe was troubled by the new wave of
barbarian attacks. The Barbarians came from the North – from
Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and were called Northmen
(Norsemen). More often the British Isles were raided from
Denmark the invaders are known in the English history as the
Danes or Scandinavians.
Though the Scandinavian invasions of England are dated to
the OE period, the effect on the language is particularly apparent
in ME.
The Scandinavians’ first attacks on Britain were carried on
the year of 793. The earliest raids were for plunder only. The
rovers sailed along the coasts the country and up the rivers. They
came in spring and summer and when they plundered enough
they returned home for winter.
In later years large Danish fleets brought large armies to
conquer and settle in new lands. They began to build military
camps from which they would make their raids upon the native
villages. These Danish raids were successful because the
Kingdoms of England had neither a regular army nor a fleet in
one North Sea to meet them.
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The OE Kingdoms that suffered most were Northumbria
and East Anglia.
When they conquered Yorkshire, they went to East Anglia
and killed the king Edmond. Then the armies of Northmen swept
over to the Midlands and as a result all England North of one
theme was in their hands.
Only Wessex, one strongest of the OE kingdoms, remained
independent. Before the Danes conquered the North, they had
made the attack on Wessex, but in 835 King Egbert defeated
them.
In 871 the Danes invaded Wessex again, but Wessex had
united the small Anglo-Saxon kingdoms under the reign of King
Alfred (in history known as Alfred the Great). Wessex became
the center of resistance against the invaders. Alfred managed to
raise the army and stop attacks of the Danes.
In 876 the invaders renewed attacks of the Wessex and
made its army retreat to the western regions of Somersetshire.
Here during 876 – 877 King Alfred reorganized his army
that let him win the battle at Ethendun, not far from Wedmore.
Here in 878 a treaty between the English and the Scandinavians
was concluded. This treaty is known in history as so-called
“Wedmore Peace”. According to this treaty the Scandinavian
occupied the territory including eastern, western and northern
parts of modern England. This territory received the name
Danelaw because it was ruled according to the laws of the
Danes.
The lands south of the river Thames a part of Mercia
remained under the control of Wessex.
At the end of the 10th century the Scandinavian attacks
were renewed. The Anglo-Saxon kings were unable to organize
the effective resistance and they tried to pay off. The Danes
agreed to be paid the tax which was called Dane-geld.
At the beginning of the 11th century, England was
conquered by the Danes once more and all its territory was made
part of the great Northern Empire which comprised the
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territories of modern Denmark, Sweden and Norway, some more
territories on the one coast of the Baltic Sea.
Linguistic situation
In the early years of occupation the Scandinavian settlements
in England were restricted to military camps. But gradually the
invaders began to bring their families, they mixed with the
native population. The Scandinavian language belonged to the
same group as OE and these languages were nearly close to each
other. There was no linguistic barrier between the invaders and
the Englishmen and they could easily communicate with each
other.
Scandinavian influence on the Vocabulary
The Scandinavian invasion as a historic event belongs to the OE
period but its linguistic consequences became apparent mainly in
ME.
1. the presence of Scandinavian of the English population is
indicated by a large number of the place-names in the
northern, eastern areas:
- thorp – village Woodthorp
- toft – a piece of land Brimtoft
- by – village Grimsby
- beck – rivulet Troutbeck
- ness – cape Inverness
The total number of Scandinavians borrowings in English is
about 900 words; about 700 of them belong to Standard English.
2. It’s difficult to define the semantic spheres of
Scandinavian borrowing: they mostly denote everyday
things. Only the earliest loan-words deal with the
military and legal matters and reflect the relations of
people during the Danish rule.
a) military terms: cnīf (knife), liρ (fleet)
orrest (battle)
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b) legal notions: laƷ (law), ūtlaƷu (outlaw), feolaƷa
(fellow), hūsbonda (husband), + verb tacan (taken).
3. Examples of everyday words of Scandinavian origin
which have been preserved in present-day Standard
English:
Nouns: bag, band, birth, bulk, cake, dirt, egg, gap, gate,
kid, leg, loan, root, score, seat, skill, skip, skirt, sky,
window, wing.
Adjectives: awkward, blat, happy, ill, loose, law, meek,
odd, rotten, tight, ugly, weak, wrong.
Verbs: call, cast, cut, die, hit, happen, lift, raise, rid,
take, want.
Directions of the Vocabulary Changes
Vocabulary changes due to Scandinavian Influence went on
in different ways.
1. A Scandinavian word could enter the English
language as an innovation, without replacing any other word:
law, fellow, outlaw.
2. More often the loan – word was a synonym of
English native word. And their rivalry led to different results.
a) The Native word could disappear or could become a
dialect word.
Late O.E. barda – ship, liρ – fleet,
b) it could take the place of the native word:
they, take, call replaced OE: lîe, niman, chipian.
c) both words survived as synonyms with a slight difference
in meaning:
Bloom (from OSc blom) and native blossom,
Ill ( OSc – illr) and native evil,
Sky (OSc – sky – dow) and native heaven,
Die - starve,
Want - wish.
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Practical assignments
The Scandinavian Invasion
1. Read, translate in verse, learn if desired the poem by R. Kipling
‘DANE-GELD’. Define the main idea of the poem, describe its
mood. Tell what historic event the poem is devoted to. Be ready to
explain in English the following notions: Dane-Geld, Dane-law, to
puff, to be molested, oppression.
Dane-Geld
(A.D. 980-1016)
It is always a temptation to an armed and agile nation
To call upon a neighbour and to say:
“We invaded you last night – we are quite prepared to fight,
Unless you pay us cash to go away.”
And that is called asking for Dane-geld,
And the people who ask it explain
That you’ve only to pay ’em the Dane-geld
And then you’ll gat rid of the Dane!
It is always a temptation to a rich and lazy nation,
To puff and look important and to say: –
“Though we know we should defeat you, we have not the time to
meet you.
We will therefore pay you cash to go away.”
And that is called paying the Dane-geld;
But we’ve proved it again and again,
That if once you have paid them the Dane-geld
You never get rid of the Dane.
It is wrong to put temptation in the path of any nation,
For fear they should succumb and go astray;
So when you are requested to pay up or be molested,
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You will find it better policy to say: -
“We never pay anyone Dane-geld,
No matter how trifling the cost;
For the end of this game is oppression and shame,
And the nation that plays it is lost!”
Датская дань
(перевод студентки 3 курса Астафьевой Елены)
Всегда соблазн вооруженного, проворного народа
Пойти к соседу и сказать:
«Мы захватили вас той ночью, славная погода,
и будем драться, пока за наш уход нам будете деньги вы
давать».
И все это зовется как Дейнгельд,
И люди, что просят это объяснить,
Что вы должны платить им только деньги те,
Чтобы потом избавиться от них и свой народ весь
защитить.
Всегда соблазн богатого, ленивого народа
Кичиться, важничать и гордо так сказать –
Мы знаем, что побьем вас, не пройдет и года,
Но нет времени у нас, чтоб вас встречать.
Мы снова деньги будем вам давать.
И это все зовется «Дейнгельд»,
И мы будем доказывать вам снова,
Что, если хотя бы раз платили... нет!
Вы не избавитесь от них, даю вам слово.
И у любой нации соблазна на пути быть не должно
Из-за боязни, что те начнут быстрее уступать.
Вы молите платить за все сполна, и так давно
Вам следует благоразумно так сказать:
«Мы никогда не платим никому Дейнгельд,
Не важно, как мала его цена.
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Итог ведь всей этой игры – подавленность, поверь,
А нация, что платит – пропадет навсегда».
Датская дань
(перевод студентки 2 курса Перовой Юлии)
Такой соблазн средь темной ночи, вооруженным до зубов,
Спросить любимого соседа: «К сражению ты готов?»
А если вдруг не хочешь ты сражаться,
И пожелаешь, чтобы мы ушли.
Нет, не надо нам, дружок сдаваться,
Ты просто дань нам заплати.
И мы ведь просим-то не так уж много,
Казна опустошится на чуть-чуть.
Зато однажды заплатив нам подать,
Ты просто про датчанина забудь.
Такой соблазн средь темной ночи
Ленивым богачам поднять нос кверху и сказать:
«Мы знаем, что победа наша, но нет мочи,
Так сильно хочется поспать».
Заплатим вам, ведь нам не жалко,
Но только слышали мы, что,
Однажды заплатив вам подать,
Датчанин не отстанет ни за что.
Поверь, ведь не для каждой нации
Соблазном будет деньги потерять,
Поэтому подумай с братьями,
Не лучше ли датчанину сказать:
«Мы не платим, и платить не будем,
И не зависит, какова цена!
Но только под угрозой понимаем,
Важней нам жизнь, которая единожды дана!»