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Файл:Теоретическая грамматика = THEORETICAL GRAMMAR. Учебное пособие
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Министерство просвещения Российской Федерации
Федеральное государственное бюджетное образовательное учреждение
высшего образования «Волгоградский государственный
социально-педагогический университет»
E.V. Bobyreva
THEORETICAL GRAMMAR
Учебное пособие
Волгоград
Научное издательство ВГСПУ
«Перемена»
2024
УДК 811.111:81`36
ББК 81.432.1-2я7
Б 72
ФГАОУ ВО «Волгоградский государственный университет»
ФГАОУ ВО «Московский государственный институт
Б 72
Теоретическая грамматика = THEORETICAL GRAMMAR :
учебное пособиеЕ. В. Бобырева. – Волгоград : Научное издательство ВГСПУ «Перемена», 2024. – 101 с. – Текст : непосред-
ственный.
ISBN 978-5-9935-0459-9
Учебное пособие имеет целью раскрытие ряда вопросов теоретической грамматики английского языка. Пособие включает теоретические
разделы, раскрывающие материал, предлагаемый в ходе лекционных курсов по дисциплине «Теоретическая грамматика английского языка», вопросы для обсуждения к каждому из разделов, позволяющие систематизировать полученные студентами теоретические знания. Учебное пособие также содержит практические задания по тематике каждого из теоретических разделов, позволяющие закрепить на практике полученные
студентами теоретические знания. В конце пособия приводится глоссарий основных грамматических терминов, а также список
Рекомендуется студентам институтов и факультетов иностранных
языков, а также студентам филологических факультетов в качестве материала к курсу теоретической грамматики английского языка, а также
спецкурсам по теории языка.
Р е ц е н з ент ы :
Ильинова Е.Ю., д-р филол. наук, профессор
Власова Е.В., канд. филол. наук, доцент
международных отношений университет
Министерства иностранных дел РФ»
© Е.В. Бобырева, 2024
© Волгоградский государственный
социально-педагогический университет, 2024
© Оформление. Научное издательство ВГСПУ
«Перемена», 2024
CONTENTS
Lecture 1. Theoretical Grammar. History of the subject.................................. 4
Lecture 2. Grammatical category. Grammatical meaning
and grammatical form. Theory of oppositions ................................................ 8
Lecture 3. Word and its morphemic structure .............................................. 11
Lecture 4. The Parts of speech problem. Grammatical classes of words ...... 13
Lecture 5. English Noun: General characteristics ........................................ 21
Lecture 6. English Adjective: General characteristics ................................. 26
Lecture 7. English Verb: General characteristics .......................................... 29
Lecture 8. English Adverb ............................................................................. 40
Lecture 9. English Article ........................................................................... 42
Lecture 10. General characteristics of English syntax.
Syntactic theories .......................................................................................... 45
Lecture 11. A Word group and a sentence. Actual division
of the sentence ............................................................................................... 48
Lecture 12. Syntax. Types of sentences ....................................................... 51
Questions and practical tasks to Lecture 1 ..................................................... 54
Questions and practical tasks to Lecture 2 .................................................... 56
Questions and practical tasks to Lecture 3 ..................................................... 57
Questions and practical tasks to Lecture 4 ..................................................... 58
Questions and practical tasks to Lecture 5 .................................................... 63
Questions and practical tasks to Lecture 6 .................................................... 67
Questions and practical tasks to Lecture 7 .................................................... 69
Questions and practical tasks to Lecture 8 .................................................... 74
Questions and practical tasks to Lecture 9 .................................................... 75
Questions and practical tasks to Lecture 10 .................................................. 81
Questions and practical tasks to Lecture 11 .................................................. 83
Questions and practical tasks to Lecture 12 ................................................. 86
Glossary ........................................................................................................ 93
Recommended Literature .............................................................................. 99
3
The term Grammar is derived from the Greek word gramatike, where
gram- meant something written, -tike – was derived from techne and meant
art. So grammatike meant the art of writing.
Speaking about grammar in general it is worth pointing out that different
types of grammmar can be distinguished taking into account different
foundations: structural or descriptive grammar, transformational grammar,
communicatively oriented grammar, semantically oriented grammar,
pragmatically oriented grammar, textual grammar, etc.
Structural grammar gives description of grammatical system of the
language.
Transformational grammar investigates the structure of kernel sentences
that enables people to construct multiple types of sentences.
Communicatively oriented grammar studies actual division of the
sentences from the point of view of theme and the rheme.
Semantically oriented grammar studies the semantic structure of the
sentences and meaning rendered through such structure.
Pragmatically oriented grammar focuses on the functions of the
language uinits.
Textual grammar puts texts into the focus of its attention.
Synchronic grammar studies the way grammatical system of a language
operates at a certain period of its existence.
Diachronic grammar studies the way the grammar of the language
changes through time.
Descriptive grammar looks at the grammar of any spoken language as
it actually exists.
Prescriptive grammar studies the norms and rules of constructing
grammatically correct speech. This aspect is used in teaching a language. It
prescribes the rules for correct usage of the language.
4
Grammar also can be subdivided into Theoretical Grammar and Practical
Grammar. Practical Grammar gives practical rules on how to use linguistic
structures. The the aim of practical grammar is to provide the student with
a manual of practical usage of the language. Theoretical Grammar gives
analysis of the structures based on general principles of linguistics. It presents
theoretical description of the grammatical system. The aim of Theoretical
Grammar is to describe grammatical structure of the language as a system
where all parts are interconnected.
Theoretical and practical grammar is different in their nature. Theoretical
Grammar is descriptive and Practical Grammar is prescriptive.
Practical (prescriptive) grammar prescribes certain rules of linguistic
units’ usage and teaches to speak or to write correctly. Theoretical grammar
presents facts of the language providing theoretical analysis of them.
Prescriptive grammar gives rules of correct usage, its aim is to prescribe what
is considered to be correct. Descriptive grammar is a systematic description
of the language structure.
Speaking about the history of the subject it should be noted that the rst
th
grammar was written by Panini in the 4
century BC. He wrote Sanskrit
grammar and formulated 3 959 rules of Sanskrit morphology, syntax and
semantics.
In Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome the term ‘grammar’ denoted any
kind of literary study.
st
Traditional Grammar in Ancient Rome: The 1
Latin grammar was
written by Varro (116-127 B.C.). He was the first who distinguished
derivation and inection. Varro set up the following system of grammatical
word classes1) words with case inection (nouns and adjectives);
2) words with tense inection (verbs);
3) words with case and tense inection (participles);
4) words which do not have inections (adverbs).
In the Middle Ages grammar was considered to be the study of Latin
in general.
Until the end of the 16th century the only grammars used in English
schools were Latin grammars. The aim of Grammar as a subject was to
teach the English to read, write and sometimes converse using the language.
The period of Renaissance widened linguistic horizons. Scholars turned
their attention to the living European languages.
Although the study of Greek and Latin grammar continued, they were
not the only languages scholars became interested in.
5
The rst grammars of English were closely related to Latin, which
scholars treated as an ideal language.
The first grammars of English were prescriptive, not descriptive.
The most inuential grammar of the Renaissance period was R. Lowth’s
grammar – “Short Introduction to English Grammar” (1762).
First prescriptive grammars were characterized by the following features:
1) patterning after Latin in classifying words into word classes and
establishing grammatical categories;
2) reliance on mening and function in denitions;
3) accent on correctness: the standards of correctness were based on
logic, which was associated with Latin as a basis;
4) emphasis on writing (written texts) rather than speech (rules of spoken
language).
nd
In the 2
part of the 19th century Henry Sweet (who was the follower
of Non-structural descriptive grammar) published his scientic work:
“New English Grammar, Logical and Historical” (1891). He wrote: “As my
exposition claims to be scientic, I conne myself to the statement of facts,
without attempting to settle the relative correctness of divergent usages. If
an ‘ungrammatical’ expression such as ‘it is me’ is in general use among
educated people, I accept it as such, simply adding that it is avoided in the
literary language”.
Unlike prescriptivists, descriptivists focus their attention on actual usage
without trying “to settle the relative correctness of divergent usages”.
Similar to prescriptivists, descriptivists use meaning and function in
their denition of parts of speech.
The rst linguists to speak of language as a system or a structure of
smaller systems were Russian linguists Beaudouin de Courtenay (1845–
1929) and Philip Fortunatov (1848–1914) and the Swiss linguist Ferdinand
de Saussure (1857– 1913).
According to another linguist, Avram Noam Chomsky, Universal
Grammar is the faculty of the mind that determines the nature of language
acquisition in the infant and of linguistic competence. The theory of
Chomsky’s Universal Grammar states that humans possess innate faculties
related to the acquisition of language. A.N. Chomsky believed that children
will never require the knowledge to possess an innite number of sentences, if
the language acquisition mechanism was dependent on language input alone.
The theory of Universal Grammar suggested that all children were born with
an ability to acquire, develop and understand grammar regardless of where
6
or how they were raised. The properties that lie behind the competence
of speakers of various languages are governed by restricted and unied
elementary principles rooted in Universal Grammar.
English Theoretical Grammar has naturally been developing together
with the World Linguistics. It is possible to dene three main stages of
English Theoretical Grammar development:
1) the rst (the 16th century – the beginning of the 19th century);
2) the second (the beginning of the 19th century – the 1930s);
3) the third (the 1930s – until present day).
The rst period can be dened as a prescientic stage of the development
of Theoretical grammar (the end of the 16th century – the 1900s.). It
comprises two types of grammar: Descriptive grammar and Prescriptive
Grammar. Early grammarians, such as William Bullokar’s in his “Bref
grammar of English” (1585) described such phenomenon of the language
as grammar. It was the pre-normative grammar.
In the middle of the 18th century appeared the normative (prescriptive)
grammar, which stated strict rules of grammatical usage. R. Lowth in the
“Short Introduction to English grammar” (1762) prescribed how to use the
language and gave the strict grammar rules.
The second period can be dened as scientic stage of the English
grammar history. During this period the basis of Theoretical Grammar was
formed – many grammatical phenomena got scientic explanation. Grammar
formed during this period was called Classical Scientic Grammar; its main
aim was to describe grammatical system in general (especially that of syntax).
Henry Sweet was the rst scholar who wrote the book of grammar entitiled
“New English grammar, Logical and Historical” (1891).
H. Sweet, C.P. Manson and A. Bain created the basis for further
developmment of scientic grammar. According to I. Pribytock, scientic
period of the history of the English grammar has two stages:
1) the rst stage – from the publication of H. Sweet’s grammar (1891)
till 1940’s when two types of grammar were formed: Prescriptive and
Explanatory.
2) the second stage – from 1940s till present. During this period classical
scientic grammar of Modern period was formed.
7
The general notions of grammar which determine the structure of
language and nd their expression in inections are called grammatical
categories.
A grammatical category is generally represented by at least two
grammatical forms, otherwise it cannot exist. A simple case of opposition
is a Singular and a Plural in a noun, or Active and Passive in a verb.
Category is a logical notion denoting the reection of the most general
properties of a phenomena. Categorial meanings in grammar are expressed
through grammatical paradigms. Thus, grammatical category is a system
of expressing a generalized categorial meaning by means of paradigmatic
correlation of grammatical forms. In other words, it is a unity of a generalized
grammatical meaning and the forms of its expression.
Grammatical category is a unit of grammar based on a morphological
opposition of grammatical meanings presented in grammatical forms.
Word-meaning is not homogeneous but is made up of various components
the combination and the interrelation of which determine to a great extent
the inner facet of the word. These components are usually described as types
of meaning. The two main types of meaning are grammatical and lexical
meanings which are to be found in words and word-forms.
Grammatical meaning is abstract and very general. Therefore grammatical form is not conned to an individual word but unites the whole class
of words, so that each word of the class expresses the corresponding
grammatical meaning.
Grammatical form is a means of expressing grammatical meaning.
Grammatical forms are divided into synthetic and analytical. Synthetic
grammatical forms are transmitted through the inner morphemic composition
of the word. Analytical grammatical forms are built up by a combination of
at least two words, one of which is auxiliary, and the other has a substantial‖
meaning. Synthetic grammatical forms are based on inner inexion (vowel
interchange, for example), outer inflexion (grammatical suffixes, for
example), and suppletive elements (combination of different roots within the
same paradigm, for example, to go – went). As for analytical grammatical
forms (which are prevalent in English) they are built by a combination of
the notional word with auxiliary words: to come – have come.
8
Grammatical forms can be morphemes, synthetic forms, and grammatical
word combinations, which are analytical forms.
Synthetic forms unite both lexical and grammatical meanings in one
word. In analytical forms there two or more words in which at least one
element is an auxiliary. Analytical structures must be differentiated from
free syntactical word combinations. In free syntactical word combinations
all the elements possess both lexical and grammatical meanings (waiter ::
waitress). In English grammatical category of gender is lost. The distinction
“waiter vs. waitress” is not universal. But in the opposition ‘book ::
books’ morpheme -s is a form-building element that builds a grammatical
form because it is characterized by grammatical abstraction realized in an
unlimited range of occurrence.
Types of word-form derivation fall into:
(a) those limited to changes in the body of the word, without having
recourse to auxiliary words (synthetic types);
(b) those implying the use of auxiliary words (analytical types).
The number of morphemes used for deriving word-forms in Modern
English is rather limited (less than in Russian). These are:
• ending -s (-es) – ladies, boxes, teachers, etc;
• ending –en: oxen, brethren (poet.), children, etc.;
• for adjectives – sufxes -er and -est (for the degrees of comparison):
hot – hotter – the hottest;
• for verbs – ending -s (-es) for the 3
rd
person singular present indicative:
comes, catches, writes, etc.;
• ending -d (-ed) for the past tense of certain verbs – lived, worked,
opened, etc.;
• ending -d (ed) for the second participle of certain verbs – marked,
realized, etc.;
• ending -n (-en) for the second participle of certain other verbs –
written, hidden, chosen, etc.;
• ending -ing for the rst participle and also for the gerund – singing,
doing, reading, etc.
It should also be noted that most of these endings are mono-semantic –
they denote only one grammatical category. For example, the plural -s (-es)
denotes only the category of plural number, and has nothing to do with any
other grammatical category.
. Sound alternation is another way of expressing
grammatical categories which consists in changing a sound inside the root:
9
‘mouse :: mice’, etc. This method is much more extensively used in verbs:
‘write – wrote – written’, ‘sing – sang – sung’, ‘meet – met – met’, etc. In
general, vowel alternation plays an important role in the grammar of modern
English.
Consist in using a word (devoid of any lexical meaning
of its own) to express some grammatical category of another word: ‘has
invited’, ‘is invited’, ‘is inviting’, ‘does not invite’, etc.
Besides synthetic and analytical means of
building word forms in Modern English, there is another way of building
word forms which is found in a very limited number of cases. Suppletive
formation is building forms of a word from different stems: to go – went;
I – me; good – better, etc. In the Modern English word formation using
suppletive forms is a very insignicant element.
Grammatical oppositions are grammatical categories, pairs of
grammatical forms opposed to each other in some way. The opposition may
be dened as a generalized correlation of lingual forms by means of which
a certain function is expressed.
By the number of members contrasted, oppositions are divided into
binary and more than binary (ternary, quaternary, etc.). The most frequent
type of oppositions is the binary privative opposition.
The binary privative opposition is formed by a contrastive pair of
members in which one member is characterized by the presence of a certain
feature, while the other member is characterized by the absence of the feature:
girl – girls, cat – cats, etc.
The meaning of the weak member is more general and abstract as
compared with the meaning of the strong member, which is more particular
and specic.
Morpheme is the smallest meaningful units into which a word form may
be divided. For instance, if we take the word-form writers, it can be divided
into three morphemes: 1) ‘writ’ – expressing the basic lexical meaning of
the word, 2) -er – expressing the idea of an agent performing the action
indicated by the root of the verb, 3) -s, indicating number – showing that
more than one person of the type indicated is meant.
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