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Файл:Теоретическая грамматика = THEORETICAL GRAMMAR. Учебное пособие
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Adverbs which have the ending -ly form degrees of comparison by means
of more and the most: wisely – more wisely – most wisely; beautifully – more
beautifully – most beautifully (exception: early – earlier – earliest).
The Superlative degree form can also be used either in the absolute
sense (to denote absolute superiority) or in the elative sense, denoting a high
degree of the property (The youngest kid cried most bitterly of all (absolute
superiority) – The kid cried most bitterly (high degree of quality).
Forms of adverbs. According to their form, adverbs are divided into
simple and derived. Some adverbs have the same form as the corresponding
adjective. In this case we distinguish an adverb from an adjective by their
syntactical function. An adjective modies a noun or a pronoun while an
adverb can modify any part of speech but a noun or a pronoun:. He was
much pleased (adverb) – There is much thickness here (adjective); He stayed
long (adverb) – He went on a long journey (adjective).
The most productive derivational model of adverbs is the one with the
sufx -ly. It is so highly productive that practically every adjective has its
adverbial counterpart: simple – simply, soft – softly, etc.
The other structural types are compound adverbs: sometimes, downstairs,
etc., and stable adverbial phrases or composite phrasal adverbs: upside down,
at least, a great deal of, from time to time, etc.
Adverbial phrases are usually made up of two or more words according
to the following structural patterns:
• a preposition plus noun: of course, at length, in fact, of a truth, etc.;
• a preposition amalgamated with a noun: indeed, besides, between,
to-day, tomorrow, asleep, away, etc.;
• a preposition plus adjective: in general, in particular, in short, in vain,
after all, at rst, at last, at least, in future, at present, etc.;
• a preposition amalgamated with an adjective: below, beyond, behind,
abroad, along, aloud, etc.;
• a noun qualied by an adjective: meantime, meanwhile, yesterday,
etc.;
• miscellaneous phrases: by all means, by no means, inside out, upside
down, to be sure, head over heals, etc.
Sometimes adverbs function in pairs connected by the conjunction and
(up and down, to and fro, etc.): He is walking up and down, to and fro; You
will see him by and by.
Adverbs should not be confused with adverb-like elements, which are
interchangeable with prepositions (and sometimes prexes) and when placed
after the verb form a semantic blend with it: to give – to give up, to give in,
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to give away, etc.; to go down the hill – to download, to downplay – to sit
down, to bring down, to bend down, etc. These functional words make a
special set; they are intermediary between the word and the morpheme and
can be called “postpositives”.
Article is a functional word, which means it has no lexical meaning and
is devoid of denotative function. Semantically the article can be viewed
as a signicator – a linguistic unit representing some conceptual content
without naming it.
Articles belong to a larger category of words called “determiners”, which
also includes words such as “this”, “some”, “my” and “any”, etc. Articles
and determiners appear before nouns and serve the function of making nouns
more specic. Articles are used to signify levels of deniteness or knownness.
There are two articles in English: the denite article “the” and the
indenite – “a”. It has become a tradition also to single out the so-called
“zero” article, which is found in the contexts where neither the denite nor
the indenite article is used.
Articles are used in a number of functions.
ARTICLES AS DETERMINERS. The main function of all articles is
that of determination. Any human language has a system of devices used
to determine words as parts of speech. In analytical languages the article is
the basic noun determiner. In synthetic languages (for example, Russian)
the same function is performed by inexions or a word order.
ARTICLES AS THEMEANDRHEME MARKERS. Articles can be
used as theme-and-rheme markers. The theme is the information already
known, and the rheme is the new idea that is being introduced. In synthetic
languages the nal position of the word in the sentence is rhematic, and the
initial position is thematic. In English the same function is performed by
the indenite and the denite articles correspondingly (В комнату вошел
человек – A man entered the room; Человек вошел в комнату – The man
entered the room).
ARTICLES AS GENERALIZERS. The object denoted by the word is
called the “referent”. Referents can be concrete, if something is said about
a concrete object or phenomenon, and general, if what we say is true for
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the whole class of objects (I have a dog at home (the denite dog). The (A)
dog is man’s friend (any dog). In the second sentence the denite article is
used as a generalizer. The generalizing function can be performed by both
the denite, the indenite and the zero article. The zero article is used in the
plural or with uncountable nouns (Conscience and cowardice are really the
same things. Iron is metal).
When concrete nouns are used in generic sense, they are usually preceded
by the denite article. The indenite article may be used when two classes
of objects are compared (A dog is stronger than a cat).
ARTICLES AS CONCRETIZERS. This function of articles differs for
denite, indenite and zero articles.
The developed from the cardinal numeral
one. The numerical meaning is evident in such phrases as: at a time, in
a moment, not a sound.
Since the choice of articles is determined by the context or the general
situation we should pay attention to different attributes modifying nouns.
All attributes are generally divided into restrictive (or limiting) and
descriptive.
A descriptive attribute is used to describe an object (or a group of objects)
or give additional information about it: He wore a large straw hat.
A restrictive attribute indicates such a quality or characteristic of an
object which makes it distinct from other objects of the class: She accepted
the coffee he offered her. Nouns modied by restrictive attributes are used
with the denite article, nouns modied by descriptive attributes are mainly
used with the indenite article.
The Indenite article can be used in four functions. Each of them is
realized under specic contextual conditions.
1. The classifying function is realized in the so-called classifying utter-
ances: This is a computer. What a long story! He is such a nuisance! You
look like a rose! She works as a teacher.
2. The generalizing function – in this function the Indenite article
implies that what is said about one representative of the class (a thing, animal or a person) can also be said about other representatives of this class.
The indenite article in its generic function has the meaning of any, every:
A crane is a tall bird with a very long neck and beak; A sonnet is a poem of
fourteen lines; A complex sentence has two or more clauses. In this func-
tion the indenite article is used in proverbs and sentences expressing some
general truth: A friend in need is a friend indeed; A hungry man is an angry
man.
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3. The function of indeniteness is realized when the referent of the
noun is not a real thing, but exists in the speaker’s imagination only. Those
are sentences containing modal verbs or verbs with modal meaning, forms
of the Subjunctive Mood, Future Tense forms, negative and interrogative
sentences: I wish I had a home like you do. Have you ever seen a living
tiger?
4. The introductory function. Before sharing some information about the
object, we need to introduce it to the hearer. Fairy tales can be used as ideal
illustrations of the use of the indenite article in its introductory function:
Once upon a time there lived an old man. He had a wife and a daughter. He
lived in a small house.
5. The quantifying function. The indenite article developed from the
numeral “one”. The meaning of “oneness” is still preserved when the article
is used with nouns denoting measure: “a minute”, “a year”, “a pound”,
etc.
may be used in the following functions:
1. The identifying function. When we speak or want to point out to
something that we perceive with our organs of feeling. There are ve different
ways of getting the information about something existing in the objective
reality. We can see it (Do you like the picture?), hear it (I believe, the music
is too loud), feel it (The pillow is so soft!), smell it (What is the name of the
perfume?) or taste it (The soup tastes bitter).
2. The function of deniteness. The object or thing denoted by the noun
is presented as a part of some complex (the speaker and the hearer know
about): I want to talk to the rector.
3. The individualizing function. The object in question may be presented
as a unique thing with the hearer’s attention focused on its features, which
are represented with the help of a limiting attribute which can be expressed
by: adjectives in the superlative degree (This is the easiest way out); ordinal
numerals (I have forgotten the rst word); attributive relative restrictive
clauses (I need the book I bought yesterday).
performs the following functions. In most cases zero
article performs the same functions as the indenite one. The difference is
that the combinability of the latter is restricted to the group of countable
nouns, whereas the zero article combines with uncountable nouns and
countable nouns in the plural (It was a large room with many windows. There
were toasts and champagne at the party).
But there are situations where zero article is used in its specic functions.
When used with the zero article, the noun loses its general grammatical
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meaning of thingness. For example, the nouns day and night used with
the zero article stand for light and darkness.
Grammatical structure of language comprises two major parts –
morphology and syntax. These two areas are interdependent but together
they constitute the study of grammar.
Morphology deals with paradigmatic and syntagmatic properties of
morphological units – morphemes and words. It is concerned with the
internal structure of words and their relationship to other words and word
forms within the paradigm. Morphology studies morphological categories
and their realization. Syntax deals with the way the words are combined.
It is concerned with the external functions of words and their relationship
to other words within word-groups, sentences and texts. Syntax studies the
way in which the language units and their meanings are united and function
together.
But the denition of the subject matter of syntax is not an easy task.
There are three basic approaches to the problem:
A wordcentric approach to syntax. Within this approach the word is
recognized as the main language unit and the syntactical units – word-groups
and sentences – are regarded as mere syntagmatics of words. The minus of
this approach lies in the fact that essential properties of syntactic units are
neglected – it is impossible to analyze the sentence as a communicative unit
and as the word-group;
A sentencecentric approach to syntax. This approach is based on the
assumption that the main language unit is the sentence and syntax should
be qualied as the theory of sentence. This approach also has some weak
points as word-groups and words are analyzed only as parts of the sentence
and their essential properties are ignored;
A comprehensive approach states that the domain of syntax is the
study of all syntactic level units in the system of their paradigmatic and
syntagmatic properties. Until recently it was considered that syntax is
constituted by two language units: word-groups (forming up minor syntax)
and sentence (forming up major syntax). Sentence is not the highest language
unit because the sentence itself cannot serve the purpose of communication.
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Only the combination of sentences forms a language unit, which serves the
purpose of communication. This highest communicative unit is called the
text. Within the text sentence functions as a minimal communicative unit.
The theory of syntax consists of three basic parts:
1) a theory of the word-group – minor syntax;
2) a theory of the sentence – major syntax;
3) a theory of the text – higher/super-syntax.
Syntactic language level can be described with the help of special linguistic terms and notions: syntactic unit, syntactic form, syntactic meaning,
syntactic function, syntactic position, and syntactic relations.
Syntactic unit is a combination that has at least two constituents. The
basic syntactic units are a word-group, a clause, a sentence, and a text. Their
main features are:
a) they are hierarchical units – the units of a lower level serve as the
building material for the units of a higher level;
b) as all language units they are of two-fold nature having a content side
(syntactic meaning) and expression side (syntactic form);
c) they have communicative and non-communicative nature: wordgroups and clauses have non-communicative nature while sentences and
texts have communicative nature.
Syntactic meaning is the way in which separate word meanings are
combined to produce meaningful word-groups and sentences.
Syntactic form presents a distributional formula of the unit (pattern).
Syntactic function is the function of a unit on the basis of which it is
included to a larger unit.
Syntactic position is the position of an element in the structure. Such
position of an element may determine its relationship with the other elements
of the same unit.
Syntactic relations are syntagmatic relations observed between syntactic
units. They can be of three types: coordination, subordination and predication.
Coordination is syntagmatic relations of independence. Coordination
may be symmetric and asymmetric. Symmetric coordination is characterized
by complete interchangeability of its elements (pens and pencils).
Asymmetric coordination occurs when the position of elements is xed
(ladies and gentlemen).
Forms of connection within coordination may be:
• copulative (you and me),
• disjunctive (you or me),
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• adversative (strict but just) and
• causative-consecutive (sentence and text level only).
Subordination is syntagmatic relations of dependence. Such relations
are established between the constituents of different linguistic rank. They
are observed on the phrase and sentence level. Subordination may be of
three different types:
• adverbial (to speak slowly),
• objective (to see a house),
• attributive (a beautiful ower).
Forms of subordination may be different:
• agreement (this book – these books),
• government (help us),
• adjournment (the use of modifying particles just, only, even, etc.),
• enclosure (the use of modal words and their equivalents really, after
all, etc.).
Predication is syntagmatic relations of interdependence. It may be of
two kinds – primary (sentence level) and secondary (phrase level). Primary
predication is observed between the subject and the predicate of the sentence while secondary predication is observed between non-nite forms of
the verb and nominal elements within the sentence. Secondary predication
serves the basis for gerundial, innitive and participial word-groups (predicative complexes).
SYNTACTIC THEORIES.
TransformationalGenerative Grammar. It was rst suggested by
American scholar Z. Harris as a method of analyzing sentences and was later
elaborated by another American scholar N. Chomsky as a synthetic method
of constructing sentences. The main point of this theory is that the endless
variety of sentences in a language can be reduced to a nite number of kernels
by means of transformations. These kernels serve the basis for generating
sentences by means of syntactic processes. Different language analysts
recognize the existence of different number of kernels. The following six
kernels are commonly associated with the English language: 1) NV – John
sings; 2) NVAdj. – John is happy; 3) NVN – John is a man; 4) NVN – John
hit the man; 5) NVNN – John gave the man a book; 6) NVPrep.N – The book
is on the table. This theory is based on the obligatory or optional environment
of syntactic elements.
Communicative Syntax is primarily concerned with the analysis
of utterances from the point of their communicative value and informative
structure. It deals with the actual division of the utterance – the theme and
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rheme analysis. Both the theme and the rheme constitute the informative
structure of the utterances. The theme is something that is known while the
rheme represents some new information.
Pragmatic approach to the study of syntactic units can be described
as the study of the way language is used in particular contexts to achieve
particular goals.
Speech Act Theory was rst introduced by John Austin. The notion
of a speech act presupposes that an utterance can be produced with different
intentions or purposes and therefore can inuence the speaker and situation
in different ways. Accordingly, it is possible to distinguish different speech
acts.
Textlinguistics studies the text as a syntactic unit, its main features
and peculiarities, different ways of its analysis.
Discourse analysis focuses on the study of language use with reference
to the social and psychological factors that inuence communication.
The phrase as a polynominative lingual unit. The phrase is the syntactic
unit used as a notional part of a sentence.
As a level-forming unit, it is characterized by some common and some
differential features with the unit of the lower level – the word, and the unit
of the upper level – the sentence. Like the word, the phrase is a nominative
unit, but it provides a complex nomination of the referent, a polynomination
consisting of several nominative components, presenting the referent
as a complicated phenomenon (a girl – a beautiful girl; a decision – an
unexpected decision).
The regular free phrase does not enter speech as a ready-made unit (like
the word does); it is freely formed in speech (like the sentence) according to
a certain grammatical pattern. As for the xed word-combinations – idioms,
they are closer to the word in the type of nomination: they are ready-made
units xed in dictionaries.
The denition of phrase is rather a controversial issue. According to
the narrow approach (V.V. Vinogradov) a phrase is a combination of two
notional words, one of which dominates the other (it is also treated as a
word-combination. According to the broader approach (L. Bloomeld and
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some modern linguists) a word-combination is any syntactically organized
group of syntagmatically connected words (combinations of functional and
notional words, and predicative and coordinative combinations of words).
Structural types of phrases. Phrase vs. Sentence. Dening the phrase
as a polynominative lingual unit helps to reveal the status of notional
phrases, semantically independent combinations of notional words, as the
basic type of phrasemes. Besides notional phrases, two other structural
types of syntagmatic groupings of words can be distinguished: formative
phrases and functional phrases. Formative phrase is a combination of a
notional word with a functional word, which is contextually dependent and
functionally similar to separate notional words used in various grammatical
forms (of Peter = Peter’s; in a moment, without doubt, etc.). Functional
phrases are combinations of functional words (apart from, as soon as, with
reference to, must be able, etc.).
The basic difference between a phrase and a sentence is that a phrase
cannot express full predication, even if it denotes a situation (They considered
the problem :: their consideration of the problem; for them to consider the
problem; their considering of the problem, etc.). Thus, the phrase enters
speech only as a constituent part of a sentence.
Being described grammatically a study of phrase is a separate part of
syntax. The syntax of phrase is sometimes called minor syntax.
The traditional classication of phrases is based on the part-of-speech
characteristics of their constituents.
There are noun phrases (a beautiful girl; men, women and children, etc.);
verbal phrases (went home; came and went, etc.); adjective phrases (quite
clear; nice and quiet, etc.); adverbial phrases (quite unexpectedly, etc.).
Subordinative phrases can be divided into those with objective
connections (direct and indirect) and qualifying connections (attributive
and adverbial): to see a child (direct objective); put on the table (indirect
objective); a beautiful girl (attributive); came soon (adverbial).
On the basis of the position of the adjunct in relation to the kernel,
subordinative phrases are characterized as regressive or progressive. In
regressive phrases, the adjunct precedes the kernel (a beautiful girl), in
progressive phrases the adjunct follows the kernel (came home).
Denition and characteristic features of the sentence. The sentence
is the central object of study in syntax. It can be dened as the immediate
integral unit of speech built up by words according to a denite syntactic
pattern and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose.
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Both a word and a sentence are nominative units, but the word just names
objects and phenomena of reality (it is a purely nominative component of
the word-stock). And sentence is both a nominative and predicative lingual
unit: it names situations or events, and reects the connection between the
nominal denotation of the events, on the one hand, and objective reality,
on the other hand, showing the time of the event, its mode (real or unreal,
desirable or undesirable, etc.).
A sentence can consist of only one word (Why? Thanks). The denition
of a sentence as a predicative lingual unit allows to dene it as a separate
lingual unit: it performs the nominative signemic function and at the same
time performs the reality-evaluating or predicative function.
Being a unit of speech, any sentence is characterized by a certain relevant
intonation.
One of the important categories of a sentence theory is the category of
predication. To some extent it is similar to the category of modality, which
also shows a connection between the named objects and actual reality.
Modality is a broader category, which is revealed both grammatically and
lexically. Predication can be dened as syntactic modality, expressed by
the sentence. The center of predication in the sentence is the nite form of
the verb, the predicate: it is through its categorial forms of tense, mood,
and voice the main predicative meanings, actual evaluations of the event
are expressed.
Besides the predicate, other elements of the sentence also help to express
predication: word order, functional words, intonation, etc. In addition the
predicative meanings of the sentence include the purpose of communication
(declaration – interrogation – inducement), afrmation and negation and
other types of meanings.
Predication is the basic differential feature of the sentence, but not the
only one. There is a profound difference between the nominative function
of the word and the nominative function of the sentence.
The nominative content of a syntagmatically complete average sentence,
called a proposition, reects a processual situation, an event that includes
a certain process, the agent of the process, the objects of the process, and
various conditions and circumstances of its realization. The situation,
together with its various elements, is reected through the nominative parts
(members) of the sentence, distinguished in the traditional grammatical or
syntactic division of the sentence, which can also be dened as its nominative
division.
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