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Файл:Теоретическая грамматика = THEORETICAL GRAMMAR. Учебное пособие
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THE INFINITIVE is the non-nite form of the verb which combines
the properties of the verb with those of the noun, serving as the verbal
name of the process. The Innitive is capable of expressing the categorical
meanings of aspect and voice.
The Innitive performs the following syntactical functions:•
Innitive as the Subject. When the Innitive is used as the Subject, it is
usually placed after the predicate and the sentence is introduced by the
introductory it (It is very hard to work under such conditions). However
Innitive in this function can occur at the beginning of the sentence
(To collect all this information for such a short period of time would be
completely impossible!);
• Innitive as a part of Compound Predicate. It can be a Part of the
Compound Nominal Predicate (The plan was to go the dean), a Part of
the Compound Verbal Modal Predicate (You should have told me about it
yesterday) or a Part of the Compound Verbal Aspect Predicate (She began
to cry);
• Infinitive as an Object (I hate to ask people such questions).
Sometimes in this function introductory It is used: He found it difcult to
spot her in the crowd;
• Innitive as an Attribute (The captain was the last to leave the ship);
• Innitive as an Adverbial modier of purpose (She put on her coat
in order not to catch cold); result (Molecules are too small to see with an
eye); comparison (She began to talk loudly as if to show that she was not
upset); attendant circumstances (An astronaut leaves the Earth and returns
fty years later to nd his twin-brother quite an old man while he is still
in the prime of his life); as parenthesis (To begin with, we have not enough
money to buy it).
THE GERUND is the non-nite form of the verb, which also combines
the properties of a verb with those of a noun.
Morphologically the verbal character of the Gerund is manifested in the
categories of voice and perfect. The verb-type combinability of the gerund is
displayed a) in its combining with nouns expressing the object of the action;
b) in modifying adverbs; c) in performing certain semi-functional predicator
verbs, but other than modal.
The nominal character of the Gerund reveals itself syntactically, mainly
in its syntactical function and partly in its combinability. Like a noun, it can
function as a subject, an object, or a predicative. When it is an attribute or
an adverbial modier, a Gerund, like a noun is preceded by a preposition.
The fact that the Gerund can be used with a preposition is a sign of its noun
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features. Like a noun it can combine with a possessive pronoun and a noun
in the genitive case denoting the doer of the action expressed by the Gerund.
The Gerund performs the functions of all the notional parts of the
sentence: a subject, an object, an attribute, an adverbial modier.
• Subject: Gambling is a very dangerous occupation;
• Object: He was accused of having stolen this necklace:
• Predicative: The main occupations of these tribes were hunting,
shing, bee-keeping and herding.
• Part of the Compound Verbal Aspect Predicate: When I came in they
stopped talking;
• Attribute (with the preposition of): I don’t approve of the idea of his
being sent there;
• Adverbial modier of: a) time (Brush your teeth before going to bed;
In examining the bond the customs ofcers found some drugs; After analyzing
these data we changed our opinion); b) attendant circumstances (He went out
without saying a word); c) manner (He spent the day in packing); d) cause
(He feels much better for having spent summer in the country); e) concession
(He always nds time to play with his son in spite of being busy); f) condition
(I will not be able to do it without being helped).
PARTICIPLE I. Participle I is a non-nite form of the verb. It can be
used in the semipredicative constructions of Complex Object and Complex
Subject (We’ve never heard him singing before :: He’s never been heard
singing before).
Participle I is the non-nite form of the verb which combines the
properties of the verb with those of the adjective and adverb, serving as
the qualifying-processual name. Since it possesses some traits both of an
adjective and an adverb, Participle I is not only dual, but triple by its lexicogrammatical properties, which is displayed in its combinability, as well as
in its syntactic functions.
The verbal character of Participle I is manifested morphologically in
the categories of voice and perfect and syntactically in its combinability.
Thus, like the other non-nites, it may combine: with a noun or a pronoun
as direct, indirect or prepositional object; with an adverb or a prepositional
phrase as an adverbial modier; with a noun or adjective as a predicative.
The adjectival and adverbial features of Participle I are manifested in its
syntactical functions as an attribute and an adverbial modier. Participle I
distinguishes grammatical categories of retrospective coordination and voice.
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Participle I can perform the following functions:
• Attribute: He advised me to speak to the man supervising the work;
The documents being typed now must be sent to London urgently;
• Adverbial modier of time (Doing her study she found a note under
her desk; When crossing the street be careful); cause (Having a richer
complexion she looked younger than her sister); comparison (She raised
her hand as if trying to stop him); manner or attendant circumstances (She
worked in the garden, singing merely);
• Predicative (part of the compound nominal predicate): The effect of
his words was terrifying;
• Parenthesis: Frankly speaking, I am not delighted with his choice;
• In the Objective Participial construction performing the function of
a part of a complex object: I saw him crossing the street;
• In the Subjective Participial construction performing the function of
a part of the compound verbal modal predicate: He was heard pacing his
room upstairs at night.
PARTICIPLE II (Past Participle) is the non-nite form of the verb
which combines the properties of the verb with those of the adjective, serving
as the qualifying-processual name. Participle II has only one form which
can express both an action simultaneous with the action expressed by the
nite form, and prior to it, but it more often expresses a prior action (The
editorial ofce of all newspaper published in London are in Fleet street; I
have read all the novels written by Jack London).
Participle II has no tense distinctions but it has voice distinctions – it
is usually passive in its meaning. However, there are cases where we can
hardly speak of a passive meaning: a drunk man, a retied ofcer, a drowned
man, a faded leaf, etc.
The functions of Participle II are almost the same as those of Participle
I. Participle II can perform the following functions in the sentence:
• Attribute (She collected all the pictures taken during their honey-moon
and put them in an album; This substance as described by the American
scientists has a very complicated structure);
• Adverbial modier of time (When questioned she would not answer;
The letter will stay here until called for); comparison (The trees were
silent as if cut of marble); condition (If treated carefully this substance is
not dangerous for the experimenter; I’ll tell them nothing unless asked);
concession (Though crushed she was no broken);
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• Predicative (I was very surprised hearing this; He was determined
to win this contest);
• Part of the Objective Participial construction. In this case it performs
the function of a part of a complex object (I saw him admitted into the room).
CATEGORY OF TENSE. Tense is a verbal category which reects the
objective category of time and expresses the relations between the time of
the action and the time of the utterance. Past, present, and future are the
objective time divisions. However, it does not mean that tense systems of
different languages are identical.
English grammar admits two different tense systems. According to one
interpretation, there are three tenses in English: present, past and future,
represented by the synthetic forms. According to the other, there are two
grammatically relevant tenses in English: the present tense and the past tense.
Some doubts about the existence of a future tense in English, assuming that
in the phrase “shall/ will + innitive” verbs shall and will preserve some of
their original modal meaning (obligation and volition, respectively).
As for the Future-in-the-Past forms, their position in the system of
English tenses is very specic. They do not easily t in the system of tenses.
CATEGORY OF ASPECT. Category of aspect reects the inherent mode
of the realization of the process. The meaning of the aspect can be in-built
in the semantic structure of the verb. In the English verb system lexical
aspective meanings are expressed in the subclasses of terminative verbs
(to start, to come) and durative or non-terminative verbs (to go, to move).
The category of aspect is a linguistic representation of the objective
category of manner of action. It is realized through the opposition Continuous
:: Non-Continuous (Progressive :: Non-Progressive).
The realization of the category of aspect is closely connected with
the lexical meaning of verbs. There are some verbs in English that do not
normally occur with progressive aspect, even in those contexts in which the
majority of verbs necessarily take the progressive form. Among the so-called
‘non-progressive’ verbs are: to think, to understand, to know, to hate, to love,
to see, to taste, to feel, to possess, to own, etc. Their main characteristic is
that they are ‘stative’ – they refer to a state of affairs, rather than to an action,
event or process. Though, it should be noted that all ‘non-progressive’ verbs
take the progressive aspect under particular circumstances.
The general meaning of the category of aspect is the inherent mode of
realization of the process. Aspect is closely connected with time semantics,
showing “the distribution of the action in time”, or the “temporal structure”
of the action.
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Aspect can be expressed both by lexical and grammatical means. This is
one more grammatical domain in which English differs dramatically from
Russian: in Russian, aspect is rendered by lexical means only, through the
subdivision of verbs into perfective and imperfective. In English the aspect
meaning is manifested in the lexical subdivision of verbs into limitive and
unlimitive: to go – to come, to sit – sit down, etc. But most verbs in English
move easily from one subclass to the other and their aspective meaning is
primarily rendered by grammatical means through special variable verbal
forms.
The expression of aspective semantics in English verbal forms is
interconnected with the expression of temporal semantics; that is why in
practical grammar they are treated not as separate tense and aspect forms
but as specic tense-aspect forms (Present Continuous: I am working; Past
Continuous: I was working; Past Perfect and Past Indenite: I had done my
work before he came, etc.).
The analysis of the category of aspect has proven to be one of the
most complex areas of English linguistics: the four correlated forms – the
Indenite, the Continuous, the Perfect, and the Perfect Continuous – have
been treated by different scholars as tense forms, as aspect forms, as forms
of mixed tense-aspect status, and as neither tense nor aspect forms, but as
forms of a separate grammatical category.
CATEGORY OF VOICE. Category of voice expresses the relation
between the subject and the action, or, in the other words, this category
expresses the relation between the subject and the object of the action. The
obvious opposition within the category of voice is that between Active and
Passive (He invited his friends – He was invited by his friends).
The category of voice reects the objective relations between the action
itself and the subject or object of the action.
The realization of the voice category is restricted because of the implicit
grammatical meaning of transitivity/intransitivity. In accordance with this
meaning, all English verbs fall into transitive and intransitive. However,
the classication turns out to be more complex and comprises six groups:
1) Verbs used only transitively: to mark, to raise, etc.;
2) Verbs with the main transitive meaning: to see, to make, to build, etc.;
3) Verbs of intransitive meaning and secondary transitive meaning. A
lot of intransitive verbs may develop a secondary transitive meaning: They
laughed me into agreement; He danced the girl out of the room, etc.;
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4) Verbs of a double nature that can be used both transitively and
intransitively: to drive home – to drive a car, etc.;
5) Verbs that are never used in the Passive Voice: to seem, to become,
etc.;
6) Verbs that realize their passive meaning only in special contexts: to
live, to sleep, to sit, to walk, to jump, etc.
It is possible to differentiate three types of passive constructions: a)
direct primary passive; b) indirect secondary passive; c) prepositional
tertiary passive.
Some English verbs can admit only one object (direct one): Mary saw
him. When such an object becomes the subject of a passive construction,
the latter is called direct primary passive (He was seen by Mary). There are
many verbs in English that take two objects in the active construction (direct
and indirect): I gave him a book. She told the story to her sister. These verbs
admit of two passive constructions:
• A book was given to him. The story was told to her sister (the direct
primary passive);
• He was given a book. Her sister was told the story (the indirect
secondary passive).
The indirect (secondary) passive is not infrequent in verb-phrases with
the verb to give, such as: to give credit, to give command, to give a chance, to
give a choice, to give an explanation, to give an opportunity, to give orders,
to give shelter, etc.: He was given a good chance to argue; She is given an
opportunity to go to the south in summer; Suppose, you are given a choice.
What would you prefer?, etc.
However, not many verbs in English may take a direct and an indirect
object in the active construction but admit only one passive construction –
the direct passive: to bring, to do, to play, to telegraph, etc.
There are constructions with the so-called prepositional or tertiary
passive. The subject of the passive construction corresponds to the
prepositional object of the active construction. This “detached” preposition
retains its place after the verb: Everything was taken care of; She could not
bear being read to any longer; He was constantly being laughed at, etc.
Some scholars admit the existence of Middle, Reexive and Reciprocal
Voices. We speak of the “Middle Voice” when the verbs primarily transitive
may develop an intransitive middle meaning: That adds a lot; The door
opened; The book sells easily; The dress washes well. “Reexive Voice”
occurs in the following cases: He dressed; He washed – so, the subject is the
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agent and the recipient of the action at the same time. It is always possible to
use a reexive pronoun in this case: He washed himself. “Reciprocal voice”
can be clearly seen in the following examples: They met; They kissed – it is
always possible to use a reciprocal pronoun here: They kissed each other.
CATEGORY OF MOOD. Category of mood is the most controversial
category of the verb. The only points in this sphere which have not been
disputed are: there is a category of mood in Modern English; there are at
least two moods in English verb, one of which is the indicative. As to the
number of the other moods, their meanings and names, opinions of scholars
are different. What makes the problem even more difcult is that the category
of mood differs from the verbal categories of tense and aspect. While the
categories of tense and aspect characterize the action from the point of view
of its various inherent properties, the category of mood expresses the outer
interpretation of the action as a whole, namely, the speaker’s introduction
of this action as actual or imaginary.
The category of mood expresses the relations between the action and
reality from the speaker’s point of view. So, traditionally three principal types
of mood in English are differenciated: the Indicative mood, the Imperative
mood and the Oblique mood. But the number and the types of mood forms
pointed by different authors vary.
The Indicative mood presents an action or event as a real fact from the
grammatical point of view. The verb in this mood form strictly distinguishes
the tense category, because it names actions taking place in the objective
time: present, past or future.
The Imperative mood expresses an inducement, addressed by the
speaker to the addressee. The peculiarity of this mood-form is that it does
not distinguish tense, aspect and voice categories. It is used only in actual
intercourse and so it coincides with the moment of speaking. Hence, it
always has the form of the present tense (Stay here! Don’t go there, etc.).
However, we can also refer to the imperative mood some interrogative
sentences which express not a question but a request or a command (Will
you open the door?; Shall I do it now?, etc.).
Modal verbs with an Innitive can be used in the Imperative mood to
express a request, a permission, a prohibition or an order (You may go now,
You mustn’t stay here too long, You are to come at ten, etc.).
The Imperative mood is formed by the Innitive without the particle “to”,
but unlike the Innitive it takes the auxiliary in the negative and interrogative
forms: Don’t forget it. I want not to forget it.
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Oblique Mood is one of disputable questions in English grammar.
Different authors speak of different types and number of oblique moods.
Oblique moods denote unreal or problematic actions and so they can’t express
objective time and do not distinguish tense-forms like the Indicative Mood.
Oblique Moods denote only relative time relations, that is simultaneity and
futurity as one time-plane and priority as the other time-plane.
Oblique moods have a range of forms including:
• Synthetic forms which coincide with the forms of the Indicative mood:
I wish he came. It’s time he were there, etc.;
• Analytical forms which coincide with the forms of the Indicative
Mood or with free word-combinations (a modal verb + an innitive): I wish
he had done it. I suggest that he should do it, etc.;
• The form of the Innitive without the particle “to”: I suggest that he
stay a little longer; Phone me if he be ill, etc.
Due to the variety of forms which express identical or nearly identical
meanings, it is impossible to make up regular paradigms of Oblique
Moods. Some authors take into consideration mostly the plane of content
and distinguish a certain number of Oblique Moods, while other scholars
pay attention to the plane of expression and speak of some other kind of
Oblique Moods.
The most popular in grammar has become the system of moods put
forward by professor A.I. Smirnitsky who distinguishes six moods: a) the
Indicative mood, b) the Imperative mood, c) Subjunctive I, d) Subjunctive
II, e) the Conditional Mood, f) the Suppositional Mood.
Though this system is not ideal and has some drawbacks. It’s main
drawbacks are: a) Subjunctive I and Suppositional Mood are differentiated
mostly by their form, being identical in their meaning; b) the term
“Conditional Mood” is not appropriate, because this mood form is mostly
used to express not the condition but the consequence.
Conditional Mood denotes an unreal action and it is built with the help
of the auxiliary verbs “should” or “would” and a non-perfect Innitive to
express simultaneity or futurity or a perfect Innitive to express priority.
Conditional Mood is used in simple sentences with an implied condition or
in the main clause of a complex conditional sentence (If he were not busy,
he would call on me; He would undoubtedly have joined us; But for the late
hour I would go there; Do it now, otherwise you would be sorry to have
wasted your time, etc.).
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Subjunctive II denotes an unreal action. In its form it coincides with
the Past Indicative not modied by the Perfect, when expressing priority.
Subjunctive II is used in different subordinate clauses or sometimes in simple
sentences with an implied consequence (If only he were not so light-minded!;
It’s time he came; I wish he had paid some attention to it; She behaves as
if she were not to blame; It is not as if she had never thought of it, etc.).
Suppositional Mood Subjunctive I denote a problematic action
which is not contrary to reality. The Suppositional Mood is built with the
help of the auxiliary verb “should” and the innitive, while Subjunctive
I coincides in its form with the Innitive without the particle “to”. They
express the same meaning and differ only stylistically. Subjunctive I is more
typical of American English and newspaper style (Ring me up if he should
arrive (arrive); It is necessary that everybody should be present there (be
present); The suggestion is that you should take the oor at the meeting;
She shut the window lest the child should catch a cold, etc.).
Because of the fact that the Oblique Mood forms coincide with the
forms of the Indicative mood, there arises the problem of their homonymy
or polysemy. Many authors think that we deal with grammatical homonyms
which coincide in their form but differ in their grammatical meaning. Other
scholars think that homonymy should be restricted only to the forms of the
Suppositional Mood, on the one hand, and the word-combination “the modal
verb “should” + an innitive” on the other hand. In all other cases we deal
with polysemy, because the verb-forms have the same lexical meaning and
are identical on the plane of expression. The difference in their grammatical
meaning is expressed by syntactic context: He lived there (priority, past tense,
indicative mood, a real action) :: He said that he lived there (simultaneity, past
tense, indicative mood, a real action) :: If only he lived there! (simultaneity,
Subjunctive II present, an unreal action).
So it seems more logical to speak of contextual polysemy of verb-forms.
Stressing the role of the syntactic context in differentiating mood-forms,
we can say that the category of mood is not a morphological category but a
contextual or syntactic category of the sentence.
Thus, the grammatical category of mood makes up a part of a general
linguistic category of modality. Verbal mood is regarded as primary modality,
while such lexical groups as modal verbs (can, must should) and modal
words (perhaps, probably) as well as intonation are considered to be the
means of secondary modality.
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Adverb is a notional part of speech which denotes property. There are
three types of adverbs: simple, interrogative, relative (conjunctive).
Simple adverbs can be distinguished from one another by their meaning,
such as:
• quality (manner) – He did his work slowly;
• quantity (degree) – He is clever enough for me;
• number – He has already tried twice;
• time – He will soon be here, He has already come;
• place – We must rest here;
• afrming or denying – He will probably return today; We shall
certainly succeed;
• emphasizing – Only one man was caught.
Interrogative adverbs are used for asking questions. Many of them are
compound (expressed by two words). Their main meanings are:
• quality (manner) – How did he do this?;
• quantity (degree) – How far (to what extent) is this article true?;
• number – How often did she come? How many students are there;
• time – When did he come? How long will you stay there? How soon
will they go?;
• place – Where did she go? How far did she go?;
• cause – Why is she crying?
Relative or Conjunctive adverbs are used not for asking questions but
for joining sentences (This is where we live).
Degrees of comparison of adverbs. Like adjectives, adverbs have
degrees of comparison. But only simple adverbs of quality or descriptive
adverbs distinguish the category of comparison and have ve morphological
forms: one positive, two comparative (direct and reverse) and two superlative
(direct and reverse): bitterly – more bitterly, less bitterly – most bitterly,
least bitterly.
If the adverb consists of one syllable, we add -er or -est to the positive
form: fast – faster – fastest; hard – harder – hardest; near – nearer – nearest;
long – longer – longest. Some adverbs have irregular forms of comparison:
well – better – best; badly – worse – worst; much – more – most; little –
less – least.
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