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Файл:Реферирование и аннотирование. Реферативный перевод. Учебное пособие
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And yet, in the long run the shortening of working hours per day, per year or per
lifetime is the most constructive measure if new technologies actually reduce the
amount of work required to give the population a respectable standard of living. The
psychological benefits of employment are not tied to an eight-hour day or a 40-hour
week. They would accrue be halved without lowering the standard of living. In this
country as elsewhere a gradual reduction of working hours is actually taking place and
there are efforts afoot to cut overtime, one the few positive aspects of an otherwise dark
picture. The immediate impact of such developments will be mostly an improvement in
the quality of working life for the employed; it is inevitably a slow way of reducing the
number of the unemployed.
(Jahoda, M. Employment and Unemployment, pp.98-99 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press).
Text 1 History of Branding
Brands originated with the 19th-century advent of packaged goods.
Industrialization moved the production of many household items, such as soap, from
local communities to centralized factories. These factories, cursed with mass-produced
goods, needed to sell their products in a wider market, to a customer base familiar only
with local goods. It quickly became apparent that a generic package of soap had
difficulty competing with familiar, local products. The packaged goods manufacturers
needed to convince the market that the public could place just as much trust in the nonlocal product.
Many brands of that era, such as Uncle Ben's rice and Kellogg's breakfast cereal
furnish illustrations of the problem. The manufacturers wanted their products to appear
and feel as familiar as the local farmers' produce. From there, with the help of
advertising, manufacturers quickly learned to associate other kinds of brand values,
such as youthfulness, fun or luxury, with their products. This kick started the practice
we now know as "branding".
Branding
Often the more a thing is discussed the less it is understood. Words have a point of
diminishing return. That point is crossed when the effort to be clear and precise counts
every tree standing, but misses the proverbial forest. Such is the case with branding
Because the idea of branding is all the rage, people are tempted to think that it is a
new idea. It is not. It’s roots reach back into history.
The Old West Let’s go back to the Old West where brands were burned into the
hind quarters of cattle. The thing branded was the cow, the product produced by the
ranching endeavor. The brand itself was the twisted iron logo on the end of the rod that
left its image or mark on the hide of the cow. Cows were roped, tied and branded in
order to identify them, should they be stolen. The brand was a mark of identity, as it is
in the corporate world.
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Some ranchers also used their logo as a welcome sign wrought in iron over the
gates of the corral or over the road leading to the rancher’s home. Again, the brand
identified the ranch. Some ranchers even got their cowhands belt buckles with the ranch
logo to identify them as employees. And over time logoed merchandise began to pop up
on boots, hats, shirts, etc.
Identity The brand is essentially a mark of identity. It identifies the ranch or
company, and has come to represent or suggest the values and character of the
company, and of its leaders. The brand is associated with the character of the company,
as well as its products.
The early history of branding was always personal. Where does the ranch or
company get the values and character that are associated with it? ‒ From its owners and
leaders, and from their business practices.
Branding as we know it today is the art of instilling and communicating the values
and character of a company or organization through association with its logo.
Psychology calls it symbolic association, and finds it to be foundational to the learning
process. Symbolic association has deep roots in human experience and in history.
Text 2 What Is Brand Name?
The meaning of a brand name, or its parts, is often cited as a justification for its use.
But it is virtually irrelevant. Most people seeing the name "Fonterra" (the name of the
newly created New Zealand dairy company, 1Oth largest in this sector globally) for the
first time will have no idea where it comes from. A small number will vaguely feel
"terra" has something to do with earth.
The main value of Fonterra is not its intellectual meaning, but what it sounds like,
what abstract associations it creates and whether it could have negative initial
associations.lt will be a great name for the Global Dairy Company (working name for
the new entity).The next step is to give it a meaning in the minds of its customers and
stakeholders, and build the brand image. In fact, it would be bad for our great
international dairy company if the meaning of Fonterra was forever restricted to the
roots of the word.
The ultimate image will, it is to be hoped, be much bigger and wider. It is like
language. We are able to communicate because we associate something with a certain
combination of letters which, by themselves, are meaningless. And the meaning of such
letter combinations may be very different in different circumstances. "Award" means
something quite different in the context of wage settlements from what it means in the
“Prince Philip Awards". If meaning was important, Montana (New Zealand’s largest
exporter of wines) would not sell one bottle of wine because "Montana" is a state in the
United States. Montana is also Latin for mountainous - the source of its use here by the
wine pioneers from the Balkans who saw the Waitakeres.
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And if meaning was really important, "Anchor" ‒ one of Fonterra's key brands ‒
would have been doomed from the beginning as a brand for milk products. The word
Anchor" has ‒ in the context of milk products ‒ lost its original etymological meaning
and taken on a new meaning as part of its overall brand image.
The root of the "Cervena" brand is also marketing-intellectual rather than
marketing-practical. The Game Industry Board website says "The Cervena name
reaches back to historical origins to give new meaning to a cherished heritage". "It
comes from a combination of the Latin ‘cervidae’, meaning ‘deer’, and ‘venison’
(which originally meant 'hunting' in Latin, but over time has come to mean deer meat in
general).
"Who cares? What is important is that both Fonterra and Cervena (also Zespri
without any meaning at all) are good-sounding names. The etymological meaning of a
brand name only matters when the brand is new and when the roots of the word(s) the
brand is derived from are known to target customers. Also, the human mind is very
‘compartmentalised’ when it comes to brands and their images. When you sit at your
beautiful Yamaha piano, you don't feel that the piano is very racy because there are
motorbikes sold under the same brand name. The Anchor beer brand in Singapore has
little or no effect on the milk brand Anchor there! Anchor is one of our if not New
Zealand's greatest international power brand. A panel of marketing and branding experts
in the UK (brought together by a UK television channel) rated the Anchor brand No.1
(NZDB, June 2001) ahead of such icons as Coca-Cola, Heineken, Heinz, Mars and
Nescafe! "The Grocer" (UK) recently placed the Anchor butter brand as No.3 , Anchor
Cheddar No. 16, and Anchor spreadable as No. 20 in the UK grocery brand league
(remember that there are between 15,000 and 25,000 brands in today's supermarkets). In
a study of the top 50 brands in Asia, Anchor emerged as the 24th (Anlene 42nd, and
Chesdale 46th) of the top 50 brands in Asia.
These NZDB/now Fonterra brands were in fact the only New Zealand brands that
rated at all in these top 50! Advertising people love to pretend that they make brand
images. That is less than a half- truth. Brand image is not just made by advertising but
by everything that a company communicates to the customer: the packaging, the
product quality, the publicity, the way its phones are answered and what its trucks look
like on the road.
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Задание 14. Прочитайте статьи. Составьте аннотации и подготовьте
реферативный перевод каждой статьи.
Margaret Thatcher
The lady who changed the world
Apr 8th 2013, 12:35 by Economist.com
ONLY a handful of peace-time politicians can claim to have changed the world.
Margaret Thatcher, who died this morning, was one. She transformed not just her own
Conservative Party, but the whole of British politics. Her enthusiasm for privatisation
launched a global revolution and her willingness to stand up to tyranny helped to bring
an end to the Soviet Union. Winston Churchill won a war, but he never created an
“ism”.
The essence of Thatcherism was to oppose the status quo and bet on freedom – odd,
since as a prim control freak, she was in some ways the embodiment of conservatism.
She thought nations could become great only if individuals were set free. Her struggles
had a theme: the right of individuals to run their own lives, as free as possible from the
micromanagement of the state.
In Britain her battles with the left – especially the miners – gave her a reputation as
a blue-rinse Boadicea. But she was just as willing to clobber her own side, sidelining
old-fashioned Tory “wets” and unleashing her creed on conservative strongholds,
notably the “big bang” in the City of London. Many of her pithiest putdowns were
directed towards her own side: “U turn if you want to”, she told the Conservatives as
unemployment passed 2m, “The lady’s not for turning.”
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Paradoxes abound. Mrs Thatcher was a true Blue Tory who marginalised the Tory
Party for a generation. The Tories ceased to be a national party, retreating to the south
and the suburbs and all but dying off in Scotland, Wales and the northern cities. Tony
Blair profited more from the Thatcher revolution than John Major, her successor: with
the trade unions emasculated and the left discredited, he was able to remodel his party
and sell it triumphantly to Middle England. His huge majority in 1997 ushered in 13
years of New Labour rule.
Yet her achievements cannot be gainsaid. She reversed what her mentor, Keith
Joseph, liked to call “the ratchet effect”, whereby the state was rewarded for its failures
with yet more power. With the brief exception of the emergency measures taken in the
wake of the financial crisis of 2007-08, there have been no moves to renationalise
industries or to resume a policy of picking winners. Thanks to her, the centre of gravity
of British politics moved dramatically to the right. The New Labourites of the 1990s
concluded that they could rescue the Labour Party from ruin only by adopting the
central tenets of Thatcherism. “The presumption should be that economic activity is best
left to the private sector,” declared Mr Blair. Neither he nor his successors would dream
of reverting to the days of nationalisation and unfettered union power.
On the world stage, too, Mrs Thatcher continues to cast a long shadow. Her
combination of ideological certainty and global prominence ensured that Britain played
a role in the collapse of the Soviet Union that was disproportionate to its weight in the
world. Mrs Thatcher was the first British politician since Winston Churchill to be taken
seriously by the leaders of all the major powers. She was a heroine to opposition
politicians in eastern Europe. Her willingness to stand shoulder to shoulder with “dear
Ronnie” to block Soviet expansionism helped to promote new thinking in the Kremlin.
But her insistence that Mikhail Gorbachev was a man with whom the West could do
business also helped to end the cold war.
The post-communist countries embraced her revolution heartily: by 1996 Russia
had privatised some 18,000 industrial enterprises. India dismantled the licence Raj – a
legacy of British Fabianism – and unleashed a cavalcade of successful companies.
Across Latin America governments embraced market liberalisation. Whether they
managed well or badly, all of them looked to the British example.
But today, the pendulum is swinging dangerously away from the principles Mrs
Thatcher espoused. In most of the rich world, the state’s share of the economy has
grown sharply in recent years. Regulations – excessive, as well as necessaryare tying up
the private sector. Businessmen are under scrutiny as they have not been for 30 years.
Demonstrators protest against the very existence of the banking industry. And with the
rise of China, state control, not economic liberalism, is being hailed as a model for
emerging countries.
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For a world in desperate need of growth, this is the wrong direction to head in. Europe
will never thrive until it frees up its markets. America will throttle its recovery unless it
avoids over-regulation. China will not sustain its success unless it starts to liberalise.
This is a crucial time to hang on to Margaret Thatcher’s central perception ‒ that for
countries to flourish, people need to push back against the advance of the state. What
the world needs now is more Thatcherism, not less.
Why People Travel
The travel and tourism industry is growing quickly. Contributing to this growth is
the fact that many people have more leisure time available, and they ften see traveling
as an attractive leisure time activity. People travel more as their average work week
decreases, as their amounts of vacation leave and holiday time increase, and as their real
income and disposable income levels increase. For example, people working in
professional occupations and those over 55 years of age are more likely to travel.
Comfortable, convenient, and fast travel as we know it today has come into being
only since the 1940s. However, people have always traveled. Prehistoric nomadic tribes
traveled, seeking food or safety. Throughout history, people have traveled in order to
fight wars, to spread ideological, religious, or political views, and simply to explore
unknown areas. The "modern" era of travel began almost 3,000 years ago when money
became a popular medium of exchange. Traders and other businesspeople began to
travel in efforts to discover and bring back products to sell in their own lands.
Today, travel is commonplace in the lives of many people, especially Americans.
Many businesspeople think nothing of flying from Chicago to New York City for a
business meeting and returning the same day. Vacation packages offered by airlines and
hotels provide great incentives for businesspeople to mix business travel with pleasure
or for families to take annual vacations which would have been "dream" vacations only
a few years ago.
Furthermore, pleasure travel is not just for the rich or near-rich anymore. This is
due in part to the widespread use and acceptance of credit cards. Credit cards allow
people to charge some or all of their vacation ‒ transportation, accommodations, food,
even souvenirs ‒ and to pay for it later, either all at once or a little at a time. In addition,
credit cards provide an easier means to handle vacation spending. They are more secure
from theft than cash. They are more convenient than traveler's checks, which often have
to be ordered from the bank one day and picked up on another. For these reasons, both
business and pleasure travel have increased dramatically.
One writer has suggested that there are both internal and external motivating
factors which influence the desire to travel.
Internal factors, which motivate one by creating an internal desire to travel, are
referred to as "push" elements. For example, some people see travel as a means to
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maintain or improve their health; spas and health resorts may be destinations for these
individuals. People also travel out of curiosity; they wish to experience new people,
places, and cultures. Likewise, the desire to participate in or view sports is an important
motivator for many. Obviously, some people travel for pleasure. For others, spiritual or
religious concerns provide an incentive. Professional and business needs can motivate
travel decisions. The desire to visit one's friends, relatives, and/or homeland is another
travel incentive. Even prestige ‒ traveling for the purpose of impressing others ‒ is a
common reason for travel. When people want to be among the "first" to visit an exotic
destination or to view sights made famous because of current news events, prestige may
be a factor in their travel decisions.
External factors, or "pull" elements, attract travelers to specific areas once their
desire to travel has been generated. A destination's culture, history, and tradition are
attractions to many travelers. Geography, wildlife, entertainment, cuisine, and climate
are other major attractions. Some people travel to view architecture. Some people travel
to shop. Many destinations are known for certain goods; for example, Hong Kong suits,
Irish crystal, Mexican leather. Others shop for collectibles as a hobby. Some prefer to
travel just for the sake of travel and may "collect" countries in much the same way that
others collect postage stamps.
Some travelers enjoy the travel more than the destination. Cruise ships, first-class
air travel, and chartered bus trips are examples of travel modes that emphasize
pleasurable transportation. Some people travel primarily because they enjoy preparing
for a trip (such as learning about a country before visiting it) or because they enjoy the
memories of a trip after it has concluded.
There are many other factors affecting where and why people travel. Consider, for
example, the increase in travel when airfares decrease or when airlines wage price wars
in their competition for business. Pleasure travel is often dominated by cost concerns;
more people will travel to places that give them the best value for their vacation dollars.
People traveling for business usually do not have this flexibility. They are traveling for
business- related purposes and must be at a specific destination at a specific time. They
are traveling for business-relate purposes and must be a specific destination at a specific
time.
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Scientists decode words from brain signals
LEE J. SIEGEL
University of Utah Public Relations. 6-Sep-2010
In an early step toward letting severely paralyzed people speak with their thoughts,
University of Utah researchers translated brain signals into words using two grids of 16
microelectrodes implanted beneath the skull but atop the brain.
"We have been able to decode spoken words using only signals from the brain with
a device that has promise for long-term use in paralyzed patients who cannot now
speak," says Bradley Greger, an assistant professor of bioengineering. Because the
method needs much more improvement and involves placing electrodes on the brain, he
expects it will be a few years before clinical trials on paralyzed people who cannot
speak due to so-called "locked-in syndrome."
The Journal of Neural Engineering's September issue is publishing Greger's study
showing the feasibility of translating brain signals into computer-spoken words.
The University of Utah research team placed grids of tiny microelectrodes over
speech centers in the brain of a volunteer with severe epileptic seizures. The man
already had a craniotomy – temporary partial skull removal – so doctors could place
larger, conventional electrodes to locate the source of his seizures and surgically stop
them.
Using the experimental microelectrodes, the scientists recorded brain signals as the
patient repeatedly read each of 10 words that might be useful to a paralyzed person: yes,
no, hot, cold, hungry, thirsty, hello, goodbye, more and less. Later, they tried figuring
out which brain signals represented each of the 10 words. When they compared any two
brain signals – such as those generated when the man said the words "yes" and "no" –
they were able to distinguish brain signals for each word 76 percent to 90 percent of the
time. When they examined all 10 brain signal patterns at once, they were able to pick
out the correct word any one signal represented only 28 percent to 48 percent of the
time – better than chance (which would have been 10 percent) but not good enough for
a device to translate a paralyzed person's thoughts into words spoken by a computer.
"This is proof of concept," Greger says, "We've proven these signals can tell you
what the person is saying well above chance. But we need to be able to do more words
with more accuracy before it is something a patient really might find useful." People
who eventually could benefit from a wireless device that converts thoughts into
computer-spoken spoken words include those paralyzed by stroke, Lou Gehrig's disease
and trauma, Greger says. People who are now "locked in" often communicate with any
movement they can make – blinking an eye or moving a hand slightly – to arduously
pick letters or words from a list.
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The study used a new kind of nonpenetrating microelectrode that sits on the brain
without poking into it. These electrodes are known as microECoGs because they are a
small version of the much larger electrodes used for electrocorticography, or ECoG,
developed a half century ago.
In the new study, the microelectrodes were used to detect weak electrical signals
from the brain generated by a few thousand neurons or nerve cells. Each of two grids
with 16 microECoGs spaced 1 millimeter (about one-25th of an inch) apart, was placed
over one of two speech areas of the brain: First, the facial motor cortex, which controls
movements of the mouth, lips, tongue and face – basically the muscles involved in
speaking. Second, Wernicke's area, a little understood part of the human brain tied to
language comprehension and understanding.
The study was conducted during one-hour sessions on four consecutive days.
Researchers told the epilepsy patient to repeat one of the 10 words each time they
pointed at the patient. Brain signals were recorded via the two grids of microelectrodes.
Each of the 10 words was repeated from 31 to 96 times, depending on how tired the
patient was. Then the researchers "looked for patterns in the brain signals that
correspond to the different words" by analyzing changes in strength of different
frequencies within each nerve signal, says Greger.
The researchers found that each spoken word produced varying brain signals, and
thus the pattern of electrodes that most accurately identified each word varied from
word to word. They say that supports the theory that closely spaced microelectrodes can
capture signals from single, column-shaped processing units of neurons in the brain.
One unexpected finding: When the patient repeated words, the facial motor cortex
was most active and Wernicke's area was less active. Yet Wernicke's area "lit up" when
the patient was thanked by researchers after repeating words. It shows Wernicke's area
is more involved in high-level understanding of language, while the facial motor cortex
controls facial muscles that help produce sounds, Greger says.
The researchers were most accurate – 85 percent – in distinguishing brain signals
for one word from those for another when they used signals recorded from the facial
motor cortex. They were less accurate – 76 percent – when using signals from
Wernicke's area. Combining data from both areas didn't improve accuracy, showing that
brain signals from Wernicke's area don't add much to those from the facial motor cortex.
When the scientists selected the five microelectrodes on each 16-electrode grid that
were most accurate in decoding brain signals from the facial motor cortex, their
accuracy in distinguishing one of two words from the other rose to almost 90 percent.
"It doesn't mean the problem is completely solved and we can all go home," Greger
says. "It means it works, and we now need to refine it so that people with locked-in
syndrome could really communicate." "The obvious next step – and this is what we are
doing right now – is to do it with bigger microelectrode grids" with 121 micro
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electrodes in an 11-by-11 grid, he says. "We can make the grid bigger, have more
electrodes and get a tremendous amount of data out of the brain, which probably means
more words and better accuracy."
Do you really need translation memory programs?
JOHN HADFIELD,
Oxford Translation Ltd., Published - March 2010
When translation memory (TM) software programs were first introduced, they
were found to be a valuable aid to translators, since they stored already translated
sentences and saved translators the time they would otherwise have taken in typing
those repeated sentences out again.
But now translators are suffering from the introduction of TM's, since translation
agencies and even end-users require translators to use TM's, but then pay the translator
in full only for sentences which are not repeated. Under this system, the translator often
has more work to do as a result of using a TM, but gets paid much less for a particular
translation than he or she would have been paid before the introduction of TM's.
The most glaring result of this problem is that all translators have been forced to
increase their standard price per word over the last few years in order to survive, so for
documents which are almost totally non-repetitive (and where a TM is therefore
useless), the translation agency or end-user ends up paying much more for its
translations than it would have paid before the introduction of TM's. However, that
same customer still insists on the translator using a TM for its translation, even though it
is obvious to all that the document concerned shows repetition in only a few random
single or two-word phrases.
The use of TM's has become an ingrained requirement for most translation
agencies and even for some end-users ‒ no account is being taken of the rate of
repetition in the translation before imposing the use of a TM.
Recently the TM manufacturers have even had the cheek to start selling courses in
their software to translators, who have to pay for those courses in order to become
"certificated" in the TM concerned.
Apart from the translation of manuals which use a great deal of repetition (such as
workshop manuals, job code manuals, etc.) and certain standardized contracts and legal
documents, a statistical analysis of any large company's or large translation agency's
translation work over a period of one year would most probably show that the
compulsory use of TM's, combined with the resulting increased price per word from
freelance translators (who perform by far the major part of translations throughout the
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