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Over three quarters of WTO members are developing countries and countries in
transition to market economies. During the seven and a half years of the Uruguay
Round, over 60 of these countries implemented trade liberalization programmes
autonomously. At the same time, developing countries and transition economies were
much more active and influential in the Uruguay Round negotiations than in any
previous round, and they are even more so in the current Doha Development Agenda.
At the end of the Uruguay Round, developing countries were prepared to take on
most of the obligations that are required of developed countries. But the agreements did
give them transition periods to adjust to the more unfamiliar and, perhaps, difficult
WTO provisions ‒ particularly so for the poorest, “least-developed” countries. A
ministerial decision adopted at the end of the round says better-off countries should
accelerate implementing market access commitments on goods exported by the leastdeveloped countries, and it seeks increased technical assistance for them. More recently,
developed countries have started to allow duty-free and quota-free imports for almost all
products from least-developed countries. On all of this, the WTO and its members are
still going through a learning process. The current Doha Development Agenda includes
developing countries’ concerns about the difficulties they face in implementing the
Uruguay Round agreements.
Marketing Is Different
Marketing has earned its place in the not-for-profit world. But marketing and
development are not the same. Marketing is about exchanging goods and services for
money. Development is about relationships ‒ it is not about money.
Increasingly, not-for-profit organizations have taken to emulating the
moneymaking practices of corporations. These days, for example, most charitable
institutions market themselves, a practice that once was anathema. This powerful trend
has three primary causes: the decrease in funding from the public sector, the increase in
competition for funds among an expanding number of not-for-profit organizations, and
the rise in funder pressure for not-for-profits to operate in a "businesslike" manner.
Immersed in a capitalistic and materialistic society, development professionals
were able to effect a huge change in outlook and behavior after a relatively brief and
easy transition. We now are accustomed to calling our constituents "clients" and
"customers." We segment our "target market" and develop strategic marketing plans.
We focus on the exchange of goods or services for money. In all these efforts, we are
aided by board members and other volunteers from the for-profit world who are eager
to embrace activities that to them are comfortable and familiar.
The effects of the rise of marketing on the attitudes and practices of development
professionals have not always been for the better. We have refined to a science the
execution of direct mail, telemarketing and special events, making them predictable
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and rote. Unfortunately, the way we imagine, plan and carry out these activities can
lead us to think of our donors as numbers and objects. Too often, we aim our
communications at the masses rather than at individuals. In our sophistication, we risk
depersonalizing and devaluing our donor relationships.
In this article, I will attempt to make clear what I believe is a key distinction
between development and marketing. They are not the same thing, and ought not be
confused. Also, I will describe what I believe has been the impact of marketing on
donor relations. Finally, I will outline both the pitfalls and the proper role of marketing
for not-for-profit organizations, in the realms of social entrepreneurship, special events
and telemarketing.
Is It Marketing or Development
Let us begin by defining what we mean by the two terms.
Marketing is the promotion of the exchange of goods or services at a mutually
agreeable price. It involves a tangible, reciprocal transaction between a seller and a
buyer.
Development is the process not-for-profit organizations use to secure financial
support and advance their missions. It involves a transaction between a donor and an
institution that is based on intangibles, like faith and trust. By contributing to
organizations, donors hope to sustain their personal values and advance their future
hopes.
Vision and Mission Remain Paramount
In Jeopardy the answer would be, "vision and mission." Any veteran development
professional will know the correct question: "What motivates donors to give to
charity?"
The fund raiser's ability to express with clarity and passion an organization's vision
and mission lies at the heart of the development process. We design and present our
message to appeal to the hearts and minds of prospective donors, and the strength of
our appeal determines our success.
With the rise of marketing in the not-for-profit world, development professionals
have come under increasing pressure to move beyond the traditional confines of
development work. The practice of marketing increases the time and attention fund
raisers must give to the various methods of fund raising, and has decreased the time
and attention we can focus on cultivating donors and attending to their needs. The task
of connecting our organization's mission with our donors' interests has become more
difficult and complex. Marketing tends to force us to keep foremost in mind the result
of our efforts ‒ money. In the process, we sometimes forget that our donors care more
about what we propose to accomplish with money.
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In the development process, an exchange occurs between an organization and a
donor, but the exchange is difficult to value and quantify. Ultimately, it is grounded in
the organization's vision and mission, and in the ways these things resonate with the
donors' values and goals.
The donor's response relates directly to the development professional's ability to
express an organization's vision and mission in a compelling way. The medium of
exchange is the donor's belief that, by helping to finance an organization's programs,
the donor's values will be given shape and voice. The quality of communication
necessary to effect a significant level of trust, belief and investment becomes difficult
to achieve without meaningful personal encounters. Such encounters are difficult to
achieve when the time of development professionals is consumed by marketing
activities.
While working to improve our business practices, not-for-profits need also to
maintain and emphasize our greatest strengths: vision and mission. "Not-for-profits are
generally stronger than for-profits in terms of the strength of their vision," Joseph
Quigley writes, in his book Vision. "All visions and strategic plans are value-based
and... values are the most fundamental element of the vision”.
HOW TO BECOME AN EXCELLENT ADVERTISEMENT WRITER
An advertisement is always made up of three parts: the title, the sub-title, and the
text. In the next few pages, you will learn step-by-step instructions on how to write
these three elements.
The title (or the hook)
The title is the most important part of the ad. What should your title say? What's its
objective? The title represents about 75% of the effectiveness of an advertisement. It
must catch the reader's eye, draw attention to itself and incite the reader to take a look
at the sub-title and then the rest of the text. Your title should keep the readers from
turning the page, otherwise you've lost them. Never forget that readers are looking for
any excuse not to read your ad. Your job is to stop them. Your title must stop the
readers cold (but not leave them cold!). If you succeed in this step and the next (the
sub-title), you can feel confident that they'll read the rest of the ad.
Tо attain your goal, you should create a title that contains one or more of the
following ingredients:
1. Attraction, to draw the attention of your readers to your ad;
2. The presentation of your product's main appeal;
3. An invitation to read the rest of the ad.
Here are a few practical suggestions to help you create your title:
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• Everyone is interested in novelty and the new. For example, if your product is
new on the market and represents new values, you can use the following words in your
title: "Now", "Newly- released", "How", "New", "Revolutionary" etc.;
• Tell your readers that the product will satisfy their needs or solve their most
immediate and pressing problems;
• Tell your readers that you will teach them "how" to accomplish something with
the information you will provide;
• Always offer your reader a choice by using the word "which";
• Always promise to satisfy the customer's needs quickly and easily;
• The words "Stunning", "Amazing", and "Exciting" are powerful when used
sparingly. Often, they are combined with the word "New" to form a explosive team;
• Where the situation permits, the word "free" is by far the best word to use in a
title.
These few suggestions are certainly no replacement for creativity, because
originality is the first criterion for an effective title. Still, as experience has shown, there
are certain words or formulas, even if they seem a bit worn, that help reinforce a title.
Given that the goal of advertising in a direct marketing business is to sell products or
generate demands for information, it would be best to combine these standards with
your own creativity.
The sub-title
Take a magazine or newspaper and note your reflex when you read the headline of
an article. You'll notice that your eyes automatically lower to read the sub-title.
The function of the sub-title is to furnish additional information and incite the reader
to read the rest of the text.
The sub-title must always appear below the title and above the body of the text, and
never in another place. Often, the lack of space will not permit you to put a sub-title in
the ad, and so it will be necessary for your main title to be reworked to pick up the
slack. When presented with this situation, advertisers often use boldface type or capital
letters in their titles in order to make them stand out. This first sentence also becomes
the bridge between the title and the main body of the text, maintaining the interest of
the reader.
The main body of the text
The body of the text immediately follows the title and subtitle. It's at this moment
that you will explain your offer by demonstrating the advantages of your product and,
in so doing, creating a need for the reader to become your customer.
The message should be fairly substantial and separated into blocks of text separated
by mini-titles (short titles come between each section, like chapter titles in a book).
These divisions are made so the text will be easier to read, giving the readers short
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breaks that allow them to digest the information. Otherwise, it would be extremely
difficult to read a text that requires constant and focused attention for a long time. It's
imperative that you present the text of your ad in a natural way – the connections
between the title, sub-title, and the body of the text should never seem forced or
illogical.
Three techniques for writing an advertisement
Three ad-writing techniques have proved the test of time in the business of direct
marketing.
The first is writing the text in a logical sequence. Here, the writer proceeds in
order from the title (or the hook) to the reply coupon. From the reading of the title,
sub-title, and through the text, the readers don't know what we expect of them. They
learn only after having read the entire advertisement to the last paragraph, that they are
asked to respond to the offer.
The second technique presents the offer at the beginning of the advertisement ‒
usually in the title, but also in the sub-title and the first paragraph. This structure is
suited for writers who consider their products to be so interesting that they'll grab the
attention of the reader right at the beginning. The readers know immediately what the
ad is about, even without having read the rest of the text. This allows the readers to
understand the ad immediately because the essentials have been stated at the outset.
Often the other paragraphs are simply expansions of the offer that make it even more
irresistible.
The third technique, also very effective, is called the "testimonial". It reads like a
short story or real-life story. For example, to make your text more believable, you can
reveal some information about the product (such as how it works, how long you have
to wait before getting results, the size of the product, or anything else that might
interest the reader). But don't tell all. Let the reader's imagination run wild.
This technique works particularly well if you're looking for information requests
and you have a mailing ready to send to the people who respond to the ad. This
technique, because of its sense of mystery, is also effective if you're selling books on
how to earn money and you want immediate payment. This type of advertisement
stimulates the reader into making an impulse purchase (but be careful not to make the
book too expensive, or you'll lose your sale.
For an overview of the "testimonial" technique for advertising, lets take an
example of a book that you've decided to sell for 30 pounds. You should write your ad
with the following elements in mind:
1. The title is the most important element. You should have one that attracts the
imagination of the readers so they don't want to turn the page;
2. The sub-title. This part should invite the readers to continue reading;
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3. The first paragraph. It's goal is to break down the defense of the readers. This is
the moment to tell them what the product will do for them;
4. In the second and third paragraphs, emphasize all the qualities of your product;
5. In the fourth paragraph, reassure the readers that this product will not cost a
fortune, that they'll be no problems with assembly, etc.;
6. In the fifth paragraph, talk about your own story. For example, you can tell the
readers how you discovered or started to make this product that you're selling, how
wonderful this has been for you and your family, how well this will work for your
readers, etc. This part should be some kind of personal and product history. Think of
what created your need for this product, and you'll have an idea of what you need to say
in this paragraph. This part should represent about half of your ad;
7. Then, add to this part the example of people you know your have benefited
from the product, and, if it's possible, use their names. Their written testimonials add
authenticity to your text, making it more believable and interesting to read;
8. Over the course of the following paragraphs, you should reinforce the
believability of your story, by emphasizing the readers as individuals rather than
yourself. People aren't interested in you. They're more interested in themselves. Use
short sentences and adjectives that suggest that wonderful things will happen to the
reader if they use your product;
9. Tell the readers that this offer won't last forever, and may end in the next few
weeks or months. If you've hooked them, they will "beg" you to sell them the product;
10. Tell the readers that they have nothing to lose. Reveal the price of the
product. This is one of the most powerful sales arguments you possess, because once
you announce the price, you don't know what amount the readers are expecting to pay;
they may expect to pay 100 pounds. So here's your winning argument: you're only
asking 30 pounds!
11. Repeat all the important information of your text. Remind the readers so
that they understand that this is the product that can do what nothing else can do. You
must make them understand that if they pass your product up, they are missing one of
their greatest opportunities;
12. The guarantee is another important element. You should offer a concrete,
clear, and unequivocal refund guarantee. These guarantees last 30, 60 or 90 days.
13. The reply-coupon. Here, clarity is a must so as not to confuse the reader. If
the coupon is too hard to understand, the reader won't fill it out and you'll have lost a
customer. Here, simplicity is the key: boxes to fill, dotted lines to indicate where to
cut, boxes to check off, etc. All you want is for them to place an order, don't you?
The reply-coupon should also reassure the customer about the delivery time. How
many times have you wanted to order an it stem and asked "How long will it take to
receive a product I've already paid for?" Everyone asks this question, so, if the
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delivery time isn't clearly indicated, most readers won't order. You lose important
orders over a little detail that you can easily put into the coupon.
The writing of an advertisement may seem quite complicated when you consider
the number of elements that you have to include, but don't worry. There aren't many
people who have a natural talent for writing. Most are like you and me, people who
know that practice will do the trick. It's only by making the attempt that we have any
chance of succeeding.
Some advice to help you write your ad:
1. Use as many words as you need and don't worry about spelling or grammar at
this stage. No one will read your first draft. Once you have the basics on paper, you can
go over the points we've already discussed and you'll be able to easily get the ball
rolling.
2. Cut out all the direct marketing ads you can find in newspapers and magazines.
Try to identify their writing techniques, and then compare the writing styles, count the
number of words in each ad, the number of times the price is mentioned, and even the
number of times they talk about the guarantee, etc. Then, note the layout of the ad: is
there too much space, or is the text tightly-packed? And, most importantly, would you
be ready to buy that product after reading the ad?
Be careful! Never copy the ad of another writer. This will sink you before you
even start. The owner of the company you've stolen from can put a stop to your
activities once he notices that you've copied an ad (or even a few sentences). The proof
will be easy to establish, particularly if his ad has already appeared. In acting this way,
you will never reach your goals. Be inspired by the other ads and different concepts,
but never steal from them.
3. Certain people, after having written their ad, slip their ad between the pages of
a magazine. Then they sit comfortably, take up the magazine, and read the ad as if they
were a client seeing the ad for the first time. After they've finished, if they feel like
they were tempted to buy, they know they have a winning ad. You can do exactly the
same thing. If, on reading your own ad, you can say to yourself, "Yes, I would buy this
product right away, without hesitation," and that you're sincerely convinced, then you
can be sure to convince any reader.
A reader who's looking for something NEW and DIFFERENT. A reader who,
seduced by your ad, will run to the post office with the reply-coupon and order form in
hand. This has been proven time and time again.
To conclude, here's a summary of the most important rules that you should
always keep in mind when writing an ad (these same rules apply when writing a sales
letter, a circular, and a postcard):
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1. The first sentence should always have an explosive effect. Demonstrate to your
reader that the product you're selling will make him save money or will bring him
great pleasure, or will improve his quality of life, etc.;
2. Emphasize the sales points;
3. Before you write the ad, make sure you're in a good mood, are alone in the room,
and you have no distractions;
4. Write with rhythm. Don't put your reader to sleep with endless paragraphs. Keep
up the tempo, or he'll get bored and turn the page;
5. When you're writing, imagine that you're writing to a friend. Be friendly and
clear in your explanations;
6. Don't use complicated words. Stick with simple language;
7. As often as possible, try to recapture the reader's attention, using, for example:
– "Here's the most important part...",
– "What's more, you'll receive at no additional cost...",
– "You'll now be able to help yourself...",
– "That's not all. You will also receive...",
– "Take advantage of this opportunity...",
– "Cut out and send this reply-coupon right now while you're thinking about it to be
sure not to forget...", etc.
8. Never leave the reader confused. Tell him clearly what you want him to do;
9. Rewrite your ad at least six times, and wait at least two days between drafts.
This way, you'll see the necessary corrections more easily.
10. Punctuate your text with the names of people, places, concrete actions, and
dates, so the reader can have a better idea of your history;
11. Insert as many testimonials as possible. Use handwritten testimonials from
your family, friends, and colleagues. Make sure that they sign their names;
12. Never beg. At the end of the ad, ask them to mail in their coupons, and
nothing more.
Задание 13. Прочитайте два отрывка из книги “The social Phychology of
Industry” by J. A. C. Brown (London, Penguin).
В каждом из отрывков найдите информацию, необходимую для
формулировки тезисов, соответствующих следующим аспектам проблемы:
1. Nature of work.
2. Effect of working conditions.
3. Motivation for work.
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Кратко изложите основное содержание текстов.
1
The orthodox view of work has been accepted by most managers and industrial
psychologists is a simple on, and fifty years of industrial psychology and more than a
century of managerial practice have been founded upon it. Regarding the nature of
work, the orthodox view accepts the Old Testament belief that physical labour is a curse
imposed on man as a punishment for his sins and that the sensible man labours solely in
order to keep himself and his family alive, or, if he is fortunate, in order to make a
sufficient surplus to enable him to do the things he really likes. Regarding the
conditions of work, it is assumed that improving the conditions of the job will cause the
worker’s natural dislike of it to be somewhat mitigated, and, in addition will keep him
physically healthy and therefore more efficient in the mechanistic sense. Finally,
regarding the motivation of work, the carrot and stick hypothesis asserts that the main
positive incentive is money, the main negative one fear of unemployment.
2
Work is an essential part of a man’s life since it is that women like their work, and
at most periods of history always have done so. When they do not like it, the fault lies in
the psychological and social conditions of the job rather than in the worker.
Furthermore, work is a social activity. The morale of the worker (i.e. whether or not he
works willingly) has no direct relationship whatsoever to material conditions of the job.
Investigations into temperature, lighting, time and motion study, noise, and humidity
have not the slightest bearing on moral, although they may have a bearing on physical
health and comfort.
There are many incentives, of which, under normal conditions, money is one of the
least important. Unemployment is a powerful negative incentive, precisely because is
true. That is to say, unemployment is feared because it cuts man off from his society.
Задание 13. Прочитайте тексты 1 и 2. Сформулируйте проблему,
объединяющую эти тексты. Определите: а) совпадающие и б)
противоположные (если таковые имеются) точки зрения авторов текстов по
отдельным аспектам проблемы. Составьте реферат на материале 2-х текстов;
сформулируйте свое отношение к данной проблеме.
Text 1
One argument used to support the idea that employment will continue to be the
dominant form of work, and that employment will eventually become available for all
who want it, is that working time will continue to fall. People in jobs will work fewer
hours in the day, fewer days in the week, fewer weeks in the year, and fewer years in a
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lifetime, than they do now. This will mean that more jobs will be available for more
people. This, it is said, is the way we should set about restoring full employment.
There is no doubt that something of this kind will happen. The shorter working
week, longer holidays, earlier retirement, more sabbaticals, job-sharing – these and
other ways of reducing the amount of time people spend on their jobs – are certainly
likely to spread. A mix of part-time paid work and part-time unpaid work is likely to
become a much more common work pattern than today, and a flexi-life pattern of
work – involving paid employment at certain stages of life, but not at others – will
become widespread. But it is surely unrealistic to assume that this will make it possible
to restore full employment as the dominant form of work.
In the first place, so long as employment remains the overwhelmingly important
form of work and source of income for most people that it is today, it is very difficult to
see how reductions in employees’ working time can take place on a scale sufficiently
large and at a pace sufficiently fast to make it possible to share out the available paid
employment to everyone who wants it. Such negotiations as there have recently been,
for example in Britain and Germany, about the possibility of introducing a 35-hour
working week, have highlighted some of the difficulties. But, secondly, changes of this
kind were to take place at a pace and on a scale sufficient to make it possible to share
employment among all who wanted it, the resulting situation – in which most people
would not be working in their jobs for more than two or three short days a week – could
hardly continue to be one in which employment was still regarded as the only truly valid
form of work. There would be so many people spending so much of their time on other
activities, including other forms of useful work, that the primacy of employment would
be bound to be called into question, at least to some extent.
(Robertson, J. Future Work: Jobs, self-employment and leisure after the Industrial Age.
(London: Gower / Maurice Temple Smith)
Text 2
There is an apparently simple solution to mass unemployment: the shortening of
working hours by 10, 15 or 20%. For several reasons such simplicity is more apparent
than real. Given the comparatively low level of British wages and salaries, organized
labour would not and could not accept wage cuts by the same proportion. Any attempt
to create employment for all by such cuts might create social upheaval on a scale larger
than that of riots. To pay the same wages for significantly reduced hours to larger
workforce, however, would lower British competitiveness on the world market even
further. But even if the world market could absorb more expensive goods – an unlikely
assumption anyhow – the attempt could not succeed because of the geographical
distribution of unemployment and the mismatch between the skills of the unemployed
and the skills required by modern enterprises.
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