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Файл:Гражданское право и его роль в формировании гражданского общества = Civil Law and its Role in the Formation of Civil Society. Сборник статей Междунаро
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Защита и содействие: гражданское право и развитие общества в Китае
правовой системы, как было объявлено, завершено, призывы к власти
о принятии Гражданского кодекса могут идти вразрез с волей законодателя. Кроме того, некоторые ученые считают, что Гражданский
кодекс не является столь необходимым и что действие отдельных
гражданских законов более характерно для китайского гражданского
права. Таким образом, сначала планируется внести поправки в Общие
положения гражданского права КНР в области установления личных
прав человека, а затем создавать Гражданский кодекс.
Общие положения гражданского права КНР были разработаны
на основе четвертого проекта Гражданского кодекса в 1986 г., когда Китай только начинал проводить в жизнь политику реформ и открытости.
Поскольку условия для введения в действие Гражданского кодекса
не были достаточно подготовлены, законодатель решил узаконить
в первую очередь Общие положения гражданского права КНР, в которые были включены наиболее важные правовые нормы, такие как
нормы о праве собственности, гражданской ответственности и т.д.
Закон был определен в качестве общих принципов и позже получил
название «Общие положения гражданского права КНР». Закон КНР
о вещных правах, Закон КНР о договорах и Закон КНР о деликтной
ответственности были приняты позже, поэтому во включении положений о праве собственности, договоре и договорной ответственности,
деликтной ответственности в Общие положения гражданского права
КНР нет необходимости. Вместе с тем Общие положения гражданского права КНР должны быть дополнены положениями о партнерстве,
домовладении, юридической личности общественной организации
и др. Таким образом, объектом внесения поправок должны стать Общие
положения гражданского права КНР, с тем чтобы в дальнейшем стать
общими положениями будущего Гражданского кодекса Китая.
Вопрос о включении в Гражданский кодекс норм о личных правах,
который когда-то был решен положительно в проекте Гражданского кодекса, в теории по-прежнему остается дискуссионным1. Автор
данной статьи считает, что Общие положения гражданского права
КНР должны содержать правовые нормы о правоспособности и праве
на имя субъекта гражданского права; в деликтное право должны войти
1
Проект был обсужден на 31-й сессии Всекитайского собрания народных представителей девятого созыва 23 декабря 2002 г. Он состоит всего из 9 томов с законодательством о личных правах в 4-м томе.
11
Лю Шигуо
положения о защите личных прав; Закон КНР о браке следует скорректировать в смысле должного регулирования личных отношений
между супругами; в праве интеллектуальной собственности, особенно в авторском праве, должно быть предусмотрено право авторства,
права создателя изобретения, открытия и т.д. Поскольку личные права
не имеют абсолютно независимого характера, как право собственности
и обязательственные права, они могут быть предусмотрены в разных
гражданских законах или в разных частях Гражданского кодекса. Автор
по-прежнему придерживается вышеизложенной позиции и полагает,
что некоторые новые личные права, вытекающие из социального развития, а именно: право на здоровую окружающую среду, право на информацию, право на самостоятельное принятие решений в личных
делах, право на неприкосновенность частной жизни, право на личную
информацию для пациентов, право на образование и т.д., должны быть
закреплены в законе. Все эти права не были предусмотрены в общих
положениях традиционных гражданских кодексов. На самом деле не все
эти права должны войти в Общие положения гражданского права КНР,
поэтому принятие отдельных законодательных актов о личных правах
является правильным решением. Для защиты таких гражданских прав
при нынешней системе гражданского законодательства более подходит
отдельный закон.
Если будут приняты общие принципы и законодательство о личных
правах, то добавив к ним Закон о вещных правах, Закон о договорах, Закон о деликтной ответственности, Закон об интеллектуальной
собственности, Закон о браке, Закон об усыновлении, а также Закон
о применении коллизионных норм в гражданских правоотношениях
с участием иностранного элемента, можно будет считать, что все части
Гражданского кодекса КНР подготовлены и вся система гражданского
права сформирована. Гражданское право будет играть в этом случае более важную роль в защите и развитии гражданского общества в Китае.
Liu Shiguo,
Fudan University, Law School,
professor
Protection & Promotion:
civil law & DeveloPment
of civil Society in china
Although there are several meanings of civil society, it generally refers to
the field of private life in China, and it is a concept in vivid contrast with the
term of state in politics. Civil society is the adjusting object of the General
Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, which is expressed
as property relationships and personal relationships between civil subjects
with equal status, that is, between citizens, between legal persons and between
citizens and legal persons. However, the concept of civil society is not existed
in the official language used by Chinese government, and the development of
civil society has not been an aim of the Reform or a basic national policy of
China. Some Chinese senior officials are too much alert to the civil society,
and are afraid of dropping into the trap set by the West. Of course, such an
attitude cannot represent the Chinese government wholly, for civil society
is always an important topic of Marxian theories. In Marx’s viewpoint, civil
society is just the cradle and arena of human history. The Marxian viewpoint
that civil society is the basis of a state has been a tool utilized by many scholars
to promote the research of civil society.
Nowadays, more and more Chinese people accept that civil law is the
general private law in a civil society, which should be owed to the policy of
socialistic market economy implemented in 1992. While the market economy
almost made everyone in society become a person who should relay on the
market, the civil society in the sense of economy was established at the same
time. Thereafter, to develop socialistic market economy was written into the
13
Liu Shiguo
Constitution in 1993, and the legislation of civil laws came into a fast developing period. Additionally, a unified contract law which applies to all civil
subjects was adopted in 1998; the Real Right Law was adopted in 2007; the
Tort Liability Law was adopted in 2009; and the Law of the Application of Law
for Foreign-related Civil Relations was adopted in 2010. So far, the socialistic
legal system of China has been announced as established.
The protecting and promoting function of the Chinese civil law for the
civil society of China is as followings:
The civil law stipulates that natural persons broadly enjoy various civil
rights. The General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China,
which was established at the beginning of the Reform and Opening-up, was
once praised by foreign scholars as citizen’s declaration of rights in China. As
for the situation of that time, it really deserves such an appraisal. Before the
Reform and Opening-up, China had no real civil laws, but only had drafted
the Civil Code for two times, which formed two drafts and aborted at last
because of the Scale-up of the Anti-Rightist Movement, the Four Cleaning
Movements and the Great Cultural Revolution. There was only the Marriage
Law before the Reform and Opening-up. At the beginning of the Reform and
Opening-up, the Economic Contract Law, the Patent Law and the Trademark
Law were established, but those laws mainly applied to enterprises. Therefore,
there were few regulations about civil rights before the establishment of the
General Principles of the Civil Law. As the General Principles of the Civil Law
stipulated several most important civil rights, such as: right of ownership,
right of credit, intellectual property rights, rights of life and health, right of
name, right of portrait, right of reputation and right of honor, and stipulated
the principle of protecting the lawful civil rights and interests of civil subjects,
it was really a general declaration of citizen’s rights.
The civil law has established a comparatively excellent system of legal
person. The system of legal person was stipulated by the General Principles
of the Civil Law at first; and since the corporation system is the core issue of
the legal person theory, the system of legal person was further ameliorated
by the Corporation Law established in 1993. As a kind of group-citizen who
was oriented by profits, corporations became the main force in the market
economy, shook off the administrative control on the enterprises which
formed under the planning system, and made Chinese economy step into a
fast developing period. Several years later, according to the unified contract
law adopted in 1999, legal person became one kind of equal civil subjects,
without any privilege only because of its special identity.
14
Protection & Promotion: Civil Law & Development of Civil Society in China
The Real Right Law adopted in 2007 persists in the principle of equal protection for the public property and private property, and denies the opinion of
special protection for the former. It is a very important change that the Real
Right Law stipulated personal ownership as private ownership. This means
that the personal ownership in legislation not only includes living materials,
but also means of production, and that the legislation has formally ratified
and equally protected the system of private ownership.
The Tort Liability Law adopted in 2009 indicates the progress of the protecting system of civil subjects, which has the most articles (92 articles totally)
and is the most elaborated one in the countries of continental legal system.
The Tort Liability Law emphasizes the protection of private rights and sets up
a principle that civil liability has precedence over administrative liability and
criminal liability. Additionally, the law provides that those who infringe upon
other’s civil rights and interests shall be subject to the tort liability. The civil
rights and interests used in this Law include the right of life, right of health,
right of name, right of reputation, right of honor, right of self image, right
of privacy, marital autonomy, guardianship, ownership, usufruct, security
interest, copyright, patent right, exclusive right to use a trademark, right
to discovery, equities, right of succession, and other personal and property
rights and interests.
The following indicates the greatest achievements of the theory of civil
law science in China: (a) discarding the wrong concept that civil law is part
of public laws and accepting the right concept that civil law is a private law,
(b) fighting against the improper intervention of the public power in civil
relationships, (c) insisting on that the state should not automatically intervene in the relation of civil parties in the first instance, and it may enter into
such area only under the petition of the parties, for the object of the theory
of private law is just to protect citizens’ freedom.
As for the research of civil society, there is no opinion against the viewpoint that civil law adjusts the relationship of civil society in the sense of
economy. However, it’s a very sensitive topic that civil law should protect and
promote citizens’ participation in the management of the national democracy,
namely the relationship of civil society in the sense of politics. The civil society in the sense of politics means political democracy, and that the activities
of the state should be oriented by citizens’ requirements and activities, and
there are mass organizations for citizens themselves. Although civil law does
not adjust the relationships of the political society directly, it should make
preparations for the participation in the lives of political society for citizens,
15
Liu Shiguo
such as making stipulations about the formation, objects, activities and termination of the legal body of mass organization, which is just a deficiency
of Chinese civil law. Though China is reinforcing the system of democratic
consultation, there are still many mass disturbances in China which happen
many times every year and lead to social instability. The aforesaid may attribute to the reason that the object of developing a socialistic civil society
has not been established and there are no detailed stipulations about the
legal body of mass organization. Even if there are some mass organizations
in China, such as labor unions, they are actually controlled by public power,
with no much self-determination, and cannot represent citizens’ will and their
reasonable claims. All those aspects are needed to be ameliorated through
improving Chinese civil law.
The greatest deterrence of the application of Chinese civil law is still the
improper intervention of a powerful administrative power, typically compulsive removal in the course of expropriation. Although the Real Right Law
explicitly stipulates that expropriation is only for the purpose of common
interests, the Regulation on the Dismantlement of Urban Houses adopted before
the Real Right Law permitted carrying on dismantlement as the negotiation of
compensation was still going on, which leaded to some developer with strong
economic power carrying on compulsory dismantlement in the assistance of
police department. In addition, because to sell land usufructs is always one
the most important fund sources for local governments, it actually makes the
issue of compulsory dismantlement more seriously. Consequently, the State
Council amended several regulations and ordinances, and passed the Demoli-
tion Compensation Ordinance1, which made a strict definition on the term of
common interests. Furthermore, the Ordinance stipulated that compensation
should go ahead of dismantlement and that compulsory removal should be
implemented only by courts. As thus, the situation has been bettered, but the
reports of bleeding events still appear in news all the time. Being up against
those bad situations, the Supreme People’s Court promulgated a special
order that any courts must not implement compulsory dismantlement until
the dwellers had been resettled completely2. Besides the improvement of the
1
The State Council promulgated the Ordinance of Demolition and Removal of Urban
Houses on June 6th, 2001, and amended the Ordinance of expropriation and Compensation of
Houses on the state-owned land on January 19th, 2011.
2
The Supreme People’s Court promulgated the Emergent Notice against the Malignant
Events Arising out of Compulsory Implementation for Land Expropriation and Demolition &
Removal of Houses on September 9th, 2011.
16
Protection & Promotion: Civil Law & Development of Civil Society in China
civil law itself, it is obvious that the protection of citizen’s interests depends
on good legal surroundings and an integrated legal system to ensure the civil
law to be implemented.
Another important issue arising out of the application of the civil law
is the infraction committed by mighty operators on customers. In business
activities, most format contracts are drafted by operators, which always provide mild contract liabilities for the operator and disadvantageous conditions
and terms for the customer. How to check up and supervise format contracts
is still an unsettled issue in China. Furthermore, the deterrent function of
the tort law on unqualified products, fake products and inferior products is
very limited, and mass product infraction cases occur regularly. Therefore,
to strengthen the administrative function of the state on economy is still an
essential condition for the implementation of civil law.
China plans to improve the civil law through amending the General Prin-
ciples of the Civil Law, establishing a personal rights law, and/or even compiling
a Civil Code. Compiling a Civil Code has been a dream for several generations of civil law scholars of China. Especially, the living elder scholars who
once participated to the drafting of the 4 drafts of the Civil Code appeal to
complete the compilation of the Civil Code, and hope that the Civil Code can
be promulgated by the legislature in their living years. Those elder scholars
ask the Civil Law Science Research Society of CLS to promote the compilation of the Civil Code. A Civil Code can remove inharmonious stipulations
in the existing civil laws, and enhance its authority and scientificity of the
civil law. Nevertheless, the lawmaking policy formed in the background of
Reform and Opening-up is a pragmatic one, namely to establish the mature
part as a separate law or regulation and leave the immature part to establish
later. Such experience has been proved as a good choice in practice. Moreover, since most of the basic civil laws have been established and the legal
system has just been announced as completed by the authority, the appeals of
compiling a Civil Code may go against the current situations and it is unacceptable for the supreme legislature. Additionally, some scholars think that
the compilation of a Civil Code is not necessary, for civil laws established
separately is a characteristic of Chinese civil law. Therefore, our plan is to
amend the General Principles of the Civil Law and establish the personal rights
law at first, and then compile a Civil Code.
The General Principles of the Civil Law were established in 1986 on the
basis of the 4th draft of the Civil Code, while China was just starting the
Reform and Opening-up policy. Since the condition of promulgating the
17
Liu Shiguo
Civil Code was not mature, the legislature chose to establish general principles of civil law firstly. Furthermore, as some important contents of subprovisions, such as right of ownership and civil liabilities etc., were urgent
to be established, a law including general principles and some contents of
sub-provisions was adopted, which was named as the General Principles
of the Civil Law later. So far, as the Real Right Law, the Contract Law and
the Tort Liability Law have been promulgated, the provisions in respect of
ownership, contract liability and tort liability in the General Principles of the
Civil Law become unnecessary. Besides, the provisions about partnership,
household and legal body of mass organization need to be added in law, and
other provisions need to be amended also. Thus, the object of amending
the General Principles of the Civil Law is to make it as the general principles
of Chinese Civil Code.
The Personal Law was once as a volume in the draft of the Civil Code1,
but whether it can become an independent volume of the Civil Code is still
doubted in theory. In the viewpoint of the author of this paper, the volume
of general principles should include provisions about the capacity for civil
rights, namely personality, and right of name for the civil subject; the Tort
Law should include provisions about the protection of personal right; the
Marriage Law should adjust the identity relationship between spouses; the
Intellectual Property Law, especially the Copyright Law, should stipulate the
right of authorship, the inventor’s patent right, and right of discovery, etc.
And as personal rights have no absolutely independent character like property rights and creditor’s rights, those rights can be stipulated by different
civil laws or in different parts of the Civil Code. The author is still keeping
aforesaid viewpoints, but also considers that some new personal rights arising out of the social development, such as environment right, information
right, self-decision right for private affairs, privacy right for patients, control
right for patients’ personal information, right to education and etc., need to
be stipulated by law together. All those rights have not been stipulated in the
general principles of the traditional civil codes. In fact, it is not suitable to
include all those rights in the general principles of the civil code. Therefore,
a comparatively separate personal law is a good choice indeed. To protect
those civil rights better, it is necessary to establish a separate personal law
under the current system of civil laws.
1
The draft was discussed at the 31st Session of the Ninth National People's Congress
on December 23rd, 2002, which has 9 volumes totally with the personal law in the 4th volume.
18
Protection & Promotion: Civil Law & Development of Civil Society in China
If the general principles and personal law established, plus the Real Right
Law, the Contract Law, the Tort Liability Law, the Intellectual Property Law,
the Marriage Law, the Adoption Law, and the Law of the Application of Law
for Foreign-related Civil Relations, all parts of the Chinese Civil Code have
been prepared already, and the whole system of civil law is established. The
civil law will play a more important role in the protection and promotion of
the civil society in China.
Ма Чаншань,
профессор Восточно-Китайского
университета политики и права
соЗдание ГражданскоГо общества
и систеМы ГражданскоГо права в китае
В силу специфики современного развития гражданское общество
Китая, не являющееся наивысшей ценностью, не отличающееся самостоятельностью, сбалансированным развитием составных элементов,
демонстрирует взаимосвязь с развивающейся системой гражданского
права КНР.
1. Защита частной собственности: прямое обращение к проти-
востоящей власти
До проведения политики реформ и открытости в Китае в принципе
отсутствовала концепция гражданского общества, вся собственность
принадлежала народу, в то время как отдельные граждане, которые
и составляли народ, на самом деле не имели ничего. Поэтому возникновение нигилизма в области прав личности было неизбежным.
Управление и распоряжение правом общественной собственности, как
и созданная мощная централизованная материальная база, находились
в руках государственной власти, которая представляла народ.
Такова была ситуация до 1978 г., когда Китай начал проводить
политику реформ и открытости и когда в условиях быстрого развития
частного сектора экономики постепенно начало образовываться гражданское общество. Однако основной особенностью развития гражданского общества Китая является его зависимость от государственной
власти, которая в свою очередь породила настойчивый призыв к отста-
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