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and _____within the government make it difficult to maintain law and order,
exacerbating the already dire situation. Despite commitments to national
healing and dialogue, women in South Sudan continue to face significant
barriers to their ______and well-being.
3. Answer the questions.
A. According to the text, what has hindered progress towards gender
equality and the protection of women's rights in South Sudan?
a) the ongoing conflict and political instability;
b) the lack of a permanent constitution;
c) traditional laws that contribute to gender inequality;
d) insecurity and corruption within the government.
B. What impact did the war and violence have on gender relations in
South Sudan?
a) gender relations remained unchanged during the war and violence;
b) the war and violence led to the emergence of less violent forms of
masculinity;
c) the war and violence had no impact on gender relations;
d) the war and violence led to the emergence of more violent forms of
masculinity.
C. What is the main idea of this passage?
a) Women's rights in South Sudan have improved significantly despite the
ongoing conflict.
b) The ongoing conflict and political instability in South Sudan have
severely threatened women's rights.
c) The government of South Sudan has made significant progress in
protecting women's rights.
d) South Sudan has a strong legal framework in place to protect women's
rights.
D. What challenges do women in South Sudan face due to the ongoing
conflict and political instability?
E. How has the third civil war in South Sudan impacted gender equality
and women's rights?
F. What factors contribute to the difficulties faced by women in South
Sudan in their pursuit of equal rights and empowerment?
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4. Translate the excerpt into Russian.
A Training Method to Improve Police Use of Force Decision Making:
A Randomized Controlled Trial
There is no other job like a police officer’s, that requires someone to
deliberately go out and actively search for dangerous situations where their
life or someone else’s life may be threatened.
Police safety and use of force decisions during critical incidents are an
ongoing source of concern for both police practitioners and the public. This
concern is evidenced by extensive media coverage of this issue. A recent
news article in the Wall Street Journal (WSJ) highlights both the sky
rocketing cost of police-misconduct cases and the growing public distrust of
the use of force decisions made by police officers. Data gathered from public
records and report that among the U.S. cities with the 10 largest police
forces state that there has been a 48% increase in costs of police-misconduct
cases since 2010.
Foundational research in the area of police performance reveals that
psychological and physiological stress responses during critical incidents
shape the outcome of the incident, either for good or for bad. Maladaptive
stress responses during a critical incident put the officer and members of the
public at risk of injury or death. Furthermore, maladaptive stress responses
can negatively affect an officer’s health and performance over time. The
objective of the current study was to design and test a training method to
improve police officers’ stress responses and use of force decision making
during critical incidents. The training method was designed to be brief and
integrated into existing use of force training programs at police
organizations.
Police work is an inherently a high-risk occupation. Officers routinely
face unpredictable, unexpected, and uncontrollable events, all of which are
factors that increase the threatening nature of an encounter. Furthermore,
officers are often required to face these threats under the least ideal
conditions, including darkness, unfamiliar territory, and other distractions
such as unexpected noise or erratic bystanders.
When a stimulus is perceived as very threatening, such as in the case of
potential injury or death, an individual experiences a greater degree of somatic nervous system (SNS) arousal. A severe SNS response is colloquially
known as the fight or flight response. Fight or flight is an instinctual survival
response comprised of significant neurological, behavioral, and
neuroendocrine changes, and is accompanied by negative emotions such as
anxiety, fear, and anger.
It is important to note that while fight or flight is a purely physiological
process, psychological processes, such as threat perception, anxiety, and
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anticipation stress, can stimulate, maintain, or inhibit the shut off of the fight
or flight response. Cortisol is excreted in a dose-response manner to the level
of threat the individual perceives (Lovallo, 2016). Aspects of the fight or
flight response, including perceptual distortions, reduced motor dexterity,
and impaired cognitive function, can be detrimental to use of force decision
making during critical incidents (Johnson, 2008).
From: Andersen, Judith & Gustafsberg, Harri. (2016). A Training Method to
Improve Police Use of Force Decision Making: A Randomized Controlled Trial.
SAGE Open. 6. 10.1177/2158244016638708.
1. Complete the summary of the text. Fill in each gap with one word.
Police ____ face unique challenges in their line of work, often finding
themselves in ____ situations where lives are at stake. Recent media
coverage has shed light on the increasing costs associated with cases of ____
misconduct, leading to a loss of trust in law enforcement. Research has
shown that how officers respond to stress during ____incidents can greatly
impact the outcome, potentially endangering themselves and others while
also affecting their long-term health and performance.
2. Study the key vocabulary and make example sentences with these
words.
E.g.: misconduct (noun) – unacceptable or improper behavior, especially
by a professional person.
Example sentence: The police officer was suspended for his misconduct
during the arrest.
Impair (verb) – to weaken or damage something, especially a person's ability
to think or see clearly.
Example sentence: ___________________________________________
Cognitive (adjective) – relating to the mental processes of perception,
memory, judgment, and reasoning.
Example sentence: ___________________________________________
Mitigate (verb) – to make something less severe, harmful, or painful.
Example sentence: __________________________________________.
Restoring (verb) – bringing back or returning something to its previous state
or condition.
Example sentence: __________________________________________.
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3. Answer the questions.
A. What evidence does the text provide to support the claim that police
officers face unique challenges in their line of work?
a) The safety of both the officers and the public is a major concern,
especially when it comes to the decisions made regarding the use of
force.
b) Recent media coverage has shed light on the increasing costs associated
with cases of police misconduct, leading to a loss of trust in law
enforcement.
c) Research has shown that how officers respond to stress during critical
incidents can greatly impact the outcome, potentially endangering
themselves and others while also affecting their long-term health and
performance.
d) Being a police officer is inherently risky, as they often find themselves in
unpredictable and uncontrollable situations, which only adds to the
danger they face.
B. According to the text, what physiological reaction occurs when we
feel threatened or stressed?
a) Our bodies enter a heightened state of alertness known as the fight or
flight response.
b) Our bodies release cortisol, a hormone that intensifies the fight or flight
response.
c) This natural survival instinct triggers various changes in our body and
brain, resulting in feelings of anxiety, fear, or anger.
d) This physiological reaction can impair our ability to make sound
decisions and think clearly in dangerous situations, distorting our
perception, hindering movement, and impeding cognitive function.
C. What is the main idea of this passage?
a) Police officers face unique challenges in their line of work, often finding
themselves in dangerous situations where lives are at stake.
b) The development of a training method to enhance police officers'
response to stress and improve decision-making in critical incidents is
imperative.
c) The fight or flight response can hinder rational thinking and impair
decision-making in dangerous situations.
d) Integrating stress management training into existing programs will
restore trust in law enforcement and reduce the costs associated with
cases of misconduct.
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4. Discuss the following question.
Why is it important to understand the impact of the fight or flight response?
5. Translate the excerpt into Russian.
Understanding Death Penalty Support and Opposition among
Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement Students
The death penalty is one of the most controversial subjects in America
today. Although the practice remains legal in 36 states and the District of
Columbia, it has nevertheless stirred passionate and heated debate among
both proponents and abolitionists. There have also been notable changes in
regard to the circumstances that the death penalty may be imposed in the
United States, as the practice was once again deemed to be constitutional
following the 1976 Supreme Court decision in Gregg v. Georgia. Three
notable changes regarding the death penalty in America since that time are
that it is no longer allowed to be imposed as punishment on criminals who
are mentally retarded (because of the 2002 Supreme Court decision in Atkins
v. Virginia), that it is no longer allowed to be imposed as punishment on
criminals who were below the age of 18 at the time of the crime (because of
the 2005 Supreme Court decision in Roper v. Simmons), and that it is no
longer allowed to be imposed as punishment on criminals if the underlying
crime did not result in the victim’s death (because of the 2008 Supreme
Court decision in Kennedy v. Louisiana).
Numerous opinion polls have revealed that a majority of Americans have
supported the death penalty for more than 40 years. However, the results
from a 2013 Gallup poll revealed the lowest support for the death penalty
since 1972 (Jones, 2013). Furthermore, as discussed in the literature review,
a body of evidence from research has begun to develop over the past 40
years, which has provided information regarding varying degrees of support
certain groups of people have had for capital punishment, with White
persons, males, Republicans, and less educated individuals generally
expressing greater support for the death penalty than non-White persons,
females, Democrats, Independents, and highly educated individuals. A
number of these studies have used college student populations, including
several that have compared the opinions of criminal justice majors and noncriminal justice majors. Additional research has looked at the underlying
reasons persons have had for either supporting or opposing capital
punishment. Little research, however, has looked at the similarities and
differences in underlying reasons specific groups of individuals have had for
either supporting or opposing the death penalty and none to date has
explored whether or not law enforcement students differ in reasons for
supporting or opposing the death penalty from other criminal justice majors.
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From: Sethuraju, Raj & Sole, Jason & Oliver, Brian. (2016). Understanding Death
Penalty Support and Opposition Among Criminal Justice and Law Enforcement
Students. SAGE Open. 6. 10.1177/2158244015624952.
1. Complete the sentences to make the summary of the text.
The death penalty is …
Significant changes have been made to how the death penalty can be
applied, including ...
Surveys show that ...
Limited research exists on ...
2. Study the key vocabulary.
Reinstated (verb) – to restore to a previous position or condition.
Example sentence: After being suspended, the student was reinstated and
allowed to return to school.
Demographics (noun) – statistical data relating to the population and
particular groups within it.
Example sentence: The demographics of the city show a diverse mix of
age, ethnicity, and income levels.
Capital punishment (noun) – the legally authorized killing of someone as
punishment for a crime.
Example sentence: The debate over capital punishment centers around
questions of morality and effectiveness.
Opposition (noun) – the act of resisting or disagreeing with something.
Example sentence: There is strong opposition to the proposed law among
environmental activists.
Limited (adjective) – restricted in size, amount, or extent.
Example sentence: Due to limited resources, the organization can only
help a small number of people.
3. Answer the questions.
A. According to the text, what was the outcome of the Supreme Court
case Atkins v. Virginia?
a) The Supreme Court ruled that individuals with mental disabilities cannot
be sentenced to death.
b) The Supreme Court ruled that the death penalty could be reinstated.
c) The Supreme Court ruled that those who committed crimes as minors
cannot receive the death penalty.
d) The Supreme Court ruled that the death penalty cannot be given if the
crime did not result in someone's death.
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B. Based on the text, which demographic groups tend to express higher
levels of support for the death penalty?
a) Non-white individuals, females, Democrats, Independents, and highly
educated individuals.
b) White individuals, males, Republicans, and those with less education.
c) College students studying criminal justice.
d) Law enforcement students.
C. What is the main idea of this passage?
a) The death penalty is a highly debated topic in America.
b) Support for the death penalty has consistently decreased over time.
c) Research has explored the reasons behind people's support or opposition
to capital punishment.
d) There is limited research on the specific reasons why different groups
hold their views on the death penalty.
4. Reflect on your own opinion about the death penalty.
5. Translate the excerpt into Russian.
Researching the Law of the Vatican City State
The Vatican City in a Nutshell
The Vatican City State (VCS), an enclave of Rome and a sovereign
monarchical-sacerdotal state comprising slightly less than nine hundred
individuals, presents a difficult challenge for the legal researcher wishing to
separate the affairs of the city state from those of the Catholic Church. The
VCS is a distinct legal jurisdiction, but the inexorable intertwining of the
Church – in the form of the Holy See – with the VCS only serves to
obfuscate the jurisdictional boundaries that lie between church and city state.
The Government and Legal System of the Vatican City State
The Holy See is a religious entity that does not occupy a temporal
location; therefore, the VCS provides it with the territorial sovereignty
necessary to guarantee it’s ability to operate as the juridical equivalent of
other states. Consequently, the Holy See is the legal personality of the VCS
which enters into treaties and sends and receives diplomatic representatives.
While it is natural to assume that normal conventions of governmental
structure apply to the structure of the VCS, it is important to note the
differences and to isolate the activities of the VCS as a temporal body from
the secular activities of the Holy See. This section examines the domestic
legal system of the VCS and the branches of the city state’s government. It
should be noted that the structure of the VCS system is not based on
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separation of the legislative, executive, and judicial powers of the
governmental body, but for the purposes of this article it will be broken
down into those components.
Legislative Matters
The legislative responsibilities granted to the Pope are delegated to the
Pontifical Commission. The Pontifical Commission is composed of seven
cardinals appointed by the Pope for a five-year term. The commission can
seek the advice of the “Consulta,” a group of experts appointed by the Pope
on any legislative matter, if further information on a topic is required.
The legislation of the VCS is comprised of the laws and regulations of the
State of the Vatican City, the Code of Canon Law, the Code of Civil
Procedure, the apostolic constitutions, the Lateran Treaty and the conventions
with other foreign states. As noted earlier, where these laws and regulations do
not cover certain instances, the Vatican has recourse to Italian laws, to
provincial regulations and to the municipal rules of the city of Rome.
Judicial Matters
The judicial system of the VCS is organized as follows: a sole judge
presiding over a court of limited jurisdiction; a three-judge Tribunal; a fourmember Court of Appeals; and, finally, the Supreme Court of Appeals. It is
important to distinguish these judicial organs from those of the Roman
Curia, which is the administrative arm of the Holy See.
Beginning at the lowest level, the sole judge is responsible for such
matters as small claims, traffic tickets, and validation of marriages. The
judge, in accordance with city state law, must be a citizen of the VCS, and
must also serve simultaneously as a judge on the other courts.
1. Study the key vocabulary.
Independent (adjective) free from outside control; not depending on
another's authority.
Example sentence: The country declared itself independent from colonial
rule.
Sovereignty (noun) – supreme power or authority.
Example sentence: The nation fought for its sovereignty and
independence.
Delegates (verb) – to entrust (a task or responsibility) to another person.
Example sentence: The manager delegates the project to his team
members.
Apostolic (adjective) – relating to the apostles or their teachings.
Example sentence: The church follows the apostolic traditions of the
early Christian community.
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Intricacies (noun) – complex details, especially of an involved or
perplexing subject.
Example Sentence: He studied the intricacies of quantum physics.
2. Answer the questions.
A. According to the text, what is the unique feature of the government
structure of the Vatican City State?
a) The Vatican City State follows a strict separation of powers.
b) The Pope delegates his legislative responsibilities to the Pontifical
Commission.
c) The Vatican City State has a judicial system that is separate from the
Roman Curia.
d) The Vatican City State refers to Italian laws in situations not covered by
its own laws.
B. What types of cases does the single judge in the Vatican City State
oversee?
a) criminal cases;
b) civil cases;
c) administrative cases;
d) marriage cases.
C. What is the main focus of the passage?
a) The legal system of the Vatican City State.
b) The relationship between the Vatican City State and the Catholic Church.
c) The administrative side of the Holy See.
d) The unique features of the government structure of the Vatican City
State.
D. What is the unique government structure of the Vatican City State?
E. What are some of the laws that govern the Vatican City State?
F. How is the judicial system of the Vatican City State structured?
3. Reflect on the concept of separation of powers in government.
4. Consider the influence of religion on legal systems.\
5. Translate the excerpt into Russian.
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5.2.3 РЕГИОНАЛЬНАЯ И ОТРАСЛЕВАЯ ЭКОНОМИКА (5.2.3.1 РЕГИО-
НАЛЬНАЯ ЭКОНОМИКА)
5.2.6 МЕНЕДЖМЕНТ
Analysis of Technological Innovation from Business Economics
and Management
There seems to be consensus, both in the academic and in the business
spheres, that one of the firm's main resources is its technological knowledge
and together with this its capability to generate innovations. However,
analysis of innovation is complex, since technological knowledge has special
characteristics that differentiate it considerably from other resources, given
its intangible nature. This makes its analysis difficult from the point of view
of neoclassical economics, whose excessively simplistic approaches mean
that more comprehensive paradigms and perspectives must be developed.
With Schumpeter, 1934, Schumpeter, 1942, greater attention began to be
given to technological change. Its fundamental role in economic
development is admitted, related to the figure of the entrepreneur as
innovating agent. This author proposes two factors, the size of the firm and
market concentration, as direct determinants of technological progress,
factors that subsequently would be taken up by industrial organization.
However, analysis in this setting, although important, continues to show, as
will be analysed below, certain deficiencies, which other theoretical
contributions attempt to overcome. Of these, because of their impact on
analysis of innovation, four important perspectives of the organizational
economics proposed by Barney and Ouchi (1986) are considered: transaction
costs economy (Williamson, 1975, Williamson, 1985), positive agency
theory (Eisenhardt, 1989, Jensen and Meckling, 1976), evolutionary theory
(Nelson and Winter, 1982) and the resource-based view (Wernerfelt, 1984).
This study seeks to carry out an in-depth and at the same time synthetic
review of the main approaches used by business economics and management
to deal with the analysis of the phenomenon of technological innovation.
The aim is to clarify their main contributions and, considering their partial
perspectives, delimit the theoretical framework that currently offers most
expectations for the analysis of innovation.
This is an important task since, given the current significance of
technological innovation and its complexity, there is a need to define a
common theoretical framework on which to base empirical studies. An
agreement on this matter would make it possible to homogenize the results
obtained and eliminate the contradictions currently existing as a result of the
approach of the different studies. It would give considerable impulse to
research on innovation and greater practical usefulness to its results. Despite
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