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Файл:Английский язык для аспирантов. Учебное пособие-1
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4. Match the words and their definitions.
1) crime
2) punishment
3) law
4) welfare
5) government
a) the governing body of a nation, state, or community
b) the health, happiness, and fortunes of a person or
group
c) a violation or breach of a law; any public wrongdoing
or offense
d) a set of rules and regulations that determine people’s
behavior and their rights in society
e) the infliction or imposition of a penalty as retribution
for an offense
5. Choose the correct preposition.
a) The vulnerability can be seen at/in terms of the conflict between
countries' criminal policy in the field of crime at/in the judicial level.
b) The controversy over the conflict of global crime with criminal policy
can be debated to the fact that criminal policy at the national level is in
conflict of /with the international level.
c) Considering that in international law the views for/of particular
countries or regions are not in priority.
d) Globalized crimes require confronting, explaining, and defining the
policy for the fight, and hence executive policies impose unwanted costs
on/in the framework of societies each year.
e) Domestic and international criminalization and the globalization
process are limitations to the rights of countries in/on the field of national
legislation.
6. Translate the excerpt into Russian.
The Process of European Union Enlargement. Recent Changes
Many consider EU enlargement to be a uniquely effective democracy-
promotion tool. Nevertheless, the enlargement process has faced criticism.
Among other issues, critics note the politicization of enlargement decision
making within the EU (some member states have used the accession process
as a forum to address bilateral disputes with candidate countries). Others
have questioned the longer-term durability of EU accession-related reforms,
citing current concerns over democratic backsliding and weakening rule of
law in member states such as Hungary and Poland, as well as assessments
that corruption and democratic deficits persist and may have worsened in
some candidate countries. Following pressure from France and several other
member states, the EU adopted some changes to the enlargement process in
early 2020. French President Emmanuel Macron in particular called for
reforming the EU’s enlargement process before further expansion.
61
According to the European Commission, the revision “aims to make the
European Union – ___________
enlargement – ___________
bilateral – ___________
current – ___________
member – ___________
further – ___________
political – ___________
thematic – ___________
broad – ___________
enlargement process more credible, predictable, dynamic, and subject to
stronger political steering.” Among other changes, the new measures are to
incorporate greater member state input and oversight, organize negotiating
chapters into thematic clusters, and situate a new “fundamentals” cluster
(encompassing the rule of law, the economy, and public administration) at
the center of the accession process. The changes also include new tools to
reward progress and sanction stagnation or backsliding, including slowing
down the process and adjusting assistance levels.
Many observers view these revisions to the enlargement process as a
concession to secure support for launching accession talks with Albania and
North Macedonia. France and other member states (including the Netherlands
and Denmark) had declined to approve opening accession talks with these two
candidate countries on several occasions, despite support from the European
Commission and praise for reform progressing both countries.
Although many European officials and analysts have welcomed the broad
aims behind the changes to the enlargement process, some caution that the
delays in the accession talks–and failure to swiftly reward candidate countries
that have undertaken difficult EU-sought reforms–have damaged the EU’s
credibility in the Western Balkans and could leave some countries in the
region more susceptible to Russian and Chinese influence.
Some EU officials and U.S. policymakers also expressed concern that the
delays would send a negative signal to candidate and potential candidate
countries and could weaken reform momentum. Following the approval
of the changes in the enlargement process, in March 2020, all 27 EU member
states approved opening accession talks with Albania and North Macedonia.
The revised enlargement measures will be included in the EU negotiation
frameworks for the two countries. Although the new enlargement
methodology was optional for Montenegro and Serbia, governments in both
countries stated that they would opt to apply it to their negotiations.
From: Archick K., Sarah E. Garding S.E. European Union Enlargement.
Congressional Research Service https://crsreports.congress.gov RS21344
1. Write the word from the text to complete the phrases (e.g. affordable –
affordable housing).
62
2. Choose the correct preposition.
steering, backsliding, enlargement, negotiation, warn, drawbacks
a) Among other issues, critics note the politicization on/of enlargement
decision making within the EU.
b) Following pressure from France and several other member states, the
EU adopted some changes to/for the enlargement process in early 2020.
c) French President Emmanuel Macron in particular called for/to
reforming the EU’s enlargement process before further expansion.
d) Many observers view these revisions to the enlargement process as a
concession to secure support for/to launching accession talks with Albania
and North Macedonia.
e) Some EU officials and U.S. policymakers also expressed concern that
the delays would send a negative signal to/for candidate and potential
candidate countries and could weaken reform momentum.
f) Following the approval with/of the changes in the enlargement process,
in March 2020, all 27 EU member states approved opening accession talks
with Albania and North Macedonia.
g) The revised enlargement measures will be included to/in the EU
negotiation frameworks for the two countries.
3. Complete the summary of the text. Fill in each gap with one word
from the box.
The purpose of the article is to study the European Union enlargement
and its reforms aimed at making this process more credible, predictable,
dynamic, and subject to stronger political______.
The article also highlights some ______of EU enlargement and states
that the _______process has faced criticism. The author notes that the
criticism led to significant changes in the process of admission of candidate
countries to the European Union.
Special attention in the article is paid to the changes that include new
tools to reward progress and sanction stagnation or________, and also
slowing down the process and adjusting assistance levels.
The author concludes that although many European officials and analysts
have welcomed the changes to the enlargement process, some of them
______ that big delays in the _______process for candidate countries
admission could turn them away from the EU.
63
4. Translate the excerpt into Russian.
The Copyright Infringement Test:
A New Approach to Literary Misappropriation in Film
Copyright infringement relating to motion pictures typically falls into
three scenarios: (1) an author claims its literary work has been used as the
basis of a film; (2) an author of a work of visual art alleges that his work was
used in a film; or (3) an author of a visual work sues a film maker for
digitally manipulating the author’s image for use in a film.
The doctrine of scènes à faire puts forth the theory that there are only a
limited amount of basic plot ideas in the world, and as a result, writers are
bound to create parallel, if not identical ideas. Due to this fact, it is not
surprising that the most popular area for infringement suits is the allegation
of plot appropriation.
For a writer to prove copyright infringement they must show: (1) copyright
ownership, (2) copying of the work, and (3) that such copying relates to
copyrightable material and is therefore deemed improper appropriation.
Under common law, an author of a literary work (before publication)
possesses the same rights as in any other property he possesses. Mainly, the
author has full control over his work in terms of first publication, and may
prevent others from using such work. The common law right to one’s
creative work is not exactly a copyright, since it includes the right to refuse,
to perform, publish, dramatize, or copy. Once an author obtains a copyright
under federal statute, their common law literary rights are abandoned.
Accordingly, proving copyright ownership in a copyright infringement
action depends on proof of ownership in compliance with the Copyright Act.
Copyright infringement consists of the following elements: (1) copying
and (2) improper appropriation. Copying can be shown by either admission
or reasonable opportunity to access the material, and similarity between the
works. If there is evidence of both access and similarity, an inference of
copying is established. Still, not all copying is illegal. Only copying that
includes more than a de minimis amount of copyrightable expression will
constitute copyright infringement. This further refinement of identifiable
copying is improper appropriation. The two-step test may be proven in court
based on the majority approach, defined by the Second Circuit in Arnstein v.
Porter and the Ninth Circuit in Sid & Marty Krofft Television Productions,
Inc. v. McDonald’s Corp. The Second Circuit answers the question of who
evaluates the copyright infringement in two parts. First is the analysis and
dissection stage, which receives the aid of expert testimony and asks whether
the defendant copied from a copyrighted work. Second is the “ordinary
observer” test to determine if such copying was illicit, and is apparent to the
64
layperson. The Ninth Circuit refers to the same two steps, but as extrinsic
1) copyright
a) appropriation
2) motion
b) infringement
3) author’s
c) pictures
4) copyrightable
d) law
5) plot
e) opportunity
6) common
f) analysis
7) creative
g) work
8) reasonable
h) material
9) intrinsic
i) image
1) Infringement
a) Writer
2) claim
b) reject
3) amount
c) get
4) author
d) access
5) relate
e) fulfill
6) refuse
f) internal
7) perform
g) violation
8) obtain
h) quantity
9) admission
i) sert
10) intrinsic
j) refer
and intrinsic analyses.
From: Bahar R. The Copyright Infringement Test: A New Approach to Literary
Misappropriation in Film. 4. Pace. Intell. Prop. Sports & Ent. Law Forum. 529
(2014). https://digitalcommons.pace.edu/pipself
1. Match these words as they occur together in the text.
2. Match the words close in their meaning.
3. Choose the correct preposition.
a) Copyright infringement relating in/to motion pictures typically falls
into three scenarios.
b) Due to this fact, it is not surprising that the most popular area to/for
infringement suits is the allegation of plot appropriation.
c) On/Under common law, an author of a literary work (before
publication) possesses the same rights as in any other property he possesses.
d) Mainly, the author has full control above/over his work in terms of
first publication, and may prevent others from using such work.
e) Once an author obtains a copyright on/under federal statute, their
common law literary rights are abandoned.
65
f) Accordingly, proving copyright ownership in a copyright infringement
action depends on proof of ownership in compliance with/to the Copyright Act.
4. Do the following statements agree with the information in the text?
a) Copyright infringement generally falls into two scenarios.
b) There is an unlimited number of basic plot ideas in the world, but for
some reasons the writers create almost identical story lines.
c) Under common law, an author of a literary work (before publication)
possesses the same rights as in any other property he possesses.
d) The author has full control over his work in terms of first publication,
and may prevent others from using such work.
e) All copying is illegal.
5. Translate the excerpt into Russian.
Societal Violence and Collective Consciousness: Reduction
of U.S. Homicide and Urban Violent Crime Rates
The present studies have implications for broader under- standing of the
collective nature of consciousness and also for the prevention of homicide
and violent crime. They focus on the macro-level of society and propose that
a positive impact on the collective consciousness of society can be predicted,
generated, and its influence measured in terms of decreased homicide and
violent crime.
Although the rates of violent crime and murder in the United States have
declined significantly since the early 1990s and again since 2006 (Federal
Bureau of Investigation, 2011), the cause of that decline remains, in large
part, unclear to behavioral and social scientists, with factors discussed for
the 1990s decline including police numbers and policing strategies, changing
demographics, reduction of childhood exposure to lead, increased prison
populations, waning crack market, immigration, and improved security
measures. As a result, policy makers lack clear direction for effecting further
reduction. The rate of murder in the United States remains higher than other
developed countries such as Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the
countries of Western Europe (United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime,
2011), and thus, further insight into any factors contributing to violent crime
that can be influenced by intervention is very valuable.
A number of theories have historically been proposed to account for the
incidence of homicide and violent crime, reflecting what may well be a
multicausal phenomenon. One distinction among theories of violent crime is
between theories that emphasize its social and ecological conditions (places)
and theories that emphasize the individuals (people) most susceptible to
crimes. For example, social disorganization theory has historically focused
66
on the community factors such as poverty, residential instability, and social
networks that influence a community’s ability to control behavior (Kubrin &
Weitzer, 2003) and was substantially developed by the work of Shaw and
McKay (1942/1969) who found that the Chicago neighborhood factors
predicted delinquency rates over time despite the neighborhoods’ changing
ethnic or racial makeup. The present study concerns short-term changes in
the national level of homicide and violent crime rather than prediction of
community variations, so the social disorganization perspective is of limited
relevance, although prior research related to the hypothesis of this study,
reviewed below, controls for, and thus appears independent of, many
community-related variables.
One process that can be seen in a number of theories is the connection
between frustration and aggression. This frustration might arise from strain
due to lack of economic opportunity for advancement, or due to poverty, or
due to inability to avoid aversive situations and achieve goals, or due to social
disruption or disorganization, affecting family and community structures that
might otherwise avert frustration or at least control aggression.
From: Dillbeck, Michael & Cavanaugh, Kenneth. (2016). Societal Violence and
Collective Consciousness: Reduction of U.S. Homicide and Urban Violent Crime
Rates. SAGE Open. 6. 10.1177/2158244016637891.
1. Study the key vocabulary of the text.
Societal (adjective) – relating to society or social groups.
Example sentence: The study focused on the societal factors that
contribute to crime rates.
Collective (adjective) – done by people acting as a group.
Example sentence: The collective effort of the community led to positive
changes.
Homicide (noun) – the act of killing another person.
Example sentence: The detective was assigned to investigate the
homicide case.
Intervention (noun) – the act of becoming involved in a situation to
improve it.
Example sentence: The government implemented an intervention
program to address the issue.
Aggression (noun) – hostile or violent behavior towards others.
Example sentence: The psychologist studied the causes of aggression in
children.
67
2. Complete the summary of the text. Fill in each gap with one word.
Studies suggest that positively influencing society's thoughts and actions
can reduce _________ and violent crime rates. Possible factors for the
decrease in violent _____ and murder rates in the United States include
changes in policing strategies, population shifts, reduced childhood lead
exposure, increased incarceration rates, a decline in the crack market,
immigration, and improved security measures. The murder rate in the United
States is still ____than that of other developed countries, highlighting the
need for further understanding and intervention.
3. Answer the questions.
A. According to the text, what is one possible factor that may have
contributed to the decrease in violent crime rates in the United
States?
a) changes in policing strategies;
b) increased childhood lead exposure;
c) decline in immigration rates;
d) reduced security measures.
B. What is the main focus of the studies discussed in this document?
a) the link between frustration and aggression;
b) theories explaining the occurrence of homicide and violent crime;
c) factors influencing society's thoughts and actions;
d) the decline in violent crime rates in the United States.
C. Based on the text, why is it important to understand the connection
between frustration and aggression?
a) to identify individuals who are more likely to commit crimes;
b) to reduce poverty and improve economic opportunities;
c) to address and prevent violent crime;
d) to enhance public safety and well-being.
4. Translate the excerpt into Russian.
Women’s Rights in Jeopardy: The Case of War-Torn South Sudan
The independence of South Sudan from Sudan in July 2011 brought a
sense of hope for peace and justice to all citizens of the country. Women in
South Sudan hoped for acquisition of their rights and empowerment in both
public and private spheres. However, this hope quickly disappeared when
the country degenerated into conflict. This left little chance for meaningfully
empowering women through the ratification and implementation of the
necessary international human rights instruments that promote the rights of
68
women in line with the Transitional Constitution of South Sudan. Besides,
there was no system of accountability designed to redress human rights
abuses in the last civil war that took place between north and south. Even
before the outbreak of the third civil war, the legacy of the previous wars
was apparent in Jonglei state where fighting between armed civilian groups
had never ceased. This ruined the long-awaited benefits of personal safety
and general security which were expected to be ushered in by the political
transition. Consequently, war and violence unequivocally brought about
mostly intense effects on the perception and creation of gender relations,
with novel, more violent constructions of masculinity in previously present
patriarchal relations frequently culminating in more dependency,
exploitation, and subservience of girls and women. This is so although the
Transitional Constitution stipulates that the country is committed to a
legitimate national healing process, including the construction of confidence
and trust by means of dialogue (The Transitional Constitution of the
Republic of South Sudan, 2011).
This study discusses the experiences of women in South Sudan. These
have been worsened by the outbreak of the third civil war which by the end
of 2016 had not ended, although a power sharing mechanism (Compromise
Peace Agreement) was signed in 2015 between Riek Machar and Salva Kiir,
the founding vice president and president of South Sudan, respectively.
Their camps have been fighting each other since mid-December 2013 when
Machar was sacked from his post as a result of the intensification of political
rivalry and tension in the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement (SPLM).
The article argues that the government of South Sudan was barely successful
in transforming the political identity of the country. This is because, among
other reasons, the third civil war affected the country’s attempts to transform
gender inequalities by defending the rights of women among other efforts.
Furthermore, the study asserts that customary law which is mostly used to
deal with gender-based violence (GBV) issues in many rural areas in South
Sudan and even urban centers continues to perpetrate gender inequalities.
Respect for the rights of women and improvement of their lives were far
from being realized, given the lack of a permanent constitution for the
country. Importantly, women’s rights and their respect are not a merely legal
issue. These are related to a system of rampant insecurity and widespread
government corruption, and this makes it difficult to uphold law and order in
the country.
From: Hove, Mediel & Ndawana, Enock. (2017). Women’s Rights in Jeopardy:
The Case of War-Torn South Sudan. SAGE Open. 7. 215824401773735.
10.1177/2158244017737355.
69
1. Study the key vocabulary of the text.
rights, corruption, instability, laws, implementation, empowerment,
violence, gender
Ratification (noun) – the act of formally approving or accepting
something, usually through a legal process.
Example sentence: The ratification of the treaty required the approval of
all participating countries.
Exploitation (noun) – the act of using someone unfairly for one's own
advantage or benefit.
Example sentence: The workers protested against the exploitation they
faced in the factory.
Subjugation (noun) – the act of bringing someone or something under
control or domination, often through force.
Example sentence: The subjugation of the indigenous people by the
colonizers led to the loss of their land and rights.
Exacerbate (verb) – to make a problem, situation, or feeling worse or
more intense.
Example sentence: The economic crisis exacerbated the poverty levels in
the country.
Empowerment (noun) – the process of giving individuals or groups the
power or authority to take control of their own lives or make decisions
affecting themselves.
Example sentence: Education is key to the empowerment of marginalized
communities.
2. Complete the summary of the text. Fill in each gap with one word
from the box.
Women's rights in South Sudan have been severely threatened due to the
ongoing conflict and political ______in the country. The ratification and
______of international human rights agreements, which were meant to
protect women's _____, became nearly impossible amidst the chaos of war.
The war and _____had a significant impact on gender relations, leading to
the emergence of more violent forms of masculinity within existing
patriarchal structures. The experiences of women in South Sudan have
worsened due to the third civil war, which began in 2013 and continued until
at least 2016. Traditional ____, which are used to address issues like
violence against women, actually contribute to _____ inequality. Insecurity
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