Добавил:
ivanov666
Опубликованный материал нарушает ваши авторские права? Сообщите нам.
Вуз:
Предмет:
Файл:Английский язык для аспирантов. Учебное пособие-1
.pdf
origin basis, but e-commerce is assumed to be taxed on a destination basis
(i.e., taxes are levied where consumers reside).
In this model, the relative cost of cross-border shopping and e-commerce
is critical. In the prior literature, falling transaction costs reduce tax rates for
all jurisdictions, but we find, instead, that a decline in the cost of ecommerce affects competing governments in different directions. Tax rates
and revenues fall only in large jurisdictions, but instead rise in small
jurisdictions. The latter of these effects is a result of the internet shifting
some transactions to a more readily monitored tax base, which benefits
jurisdictions with initially less taxable activity. We derive these results
initially in a model grounded in the spatial framework used in previous
studies. We later show that the results can be generalized by allowing for
many commodity types with complex trade patterns, different transaction
costs for different commodities, imperfect enforcement, and differentiated
tax treatment of commodities. This allows for many more applications than
might be initially apparent, such as excise taxation and taxation of
interregional and international trade.
Furthermore, the insights of our model are not limited to consumption
taxes. As a second illustration of our general theme, a later section adapts the
model to study a very different policy issue, the competition among
governments that impose taxes on business incomes. The model recognizes
that firms may avoid high taxes by either (or both) of two means: first, by
using costly organizational forms, accounting procedures, or other methods
to shift income to jurisdictions that offer more favorable tax treatment, or
second, by relocating productive business activities, at a cost, to lower-tax
jurisdictions. In this context, technological change is reflected in the costs of
each type of tax avoidance; in either case, technological changes that lower
these costs would tend, plausibly, to intensify fiscal competition. As in the
consumption-tax case, however, we find that matters are not so simple. A
decline in the cost of profit shifting intensifies tax competition and lowers
tax rates in all jurisdictions. However, reductions in the cost of (real)
business relocation may increase equilibrium tax rates and tax revenues for
some low-tax jurisdictions, even as they put downward pressure on the taxes
of high-tax jurisdictions. As in the consumption tax case, these divergent
results arise because technological change alters the spatial distribution of
the portion of the tax base that can easily be monitored.
From: Agrawal D.R. , Wildasin D.E. Journal of Public Economics, Volume 185,
May 2020, 104082. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2019.104082
1. Write the word from the table to complete the phrases (e.g.
mechanisms – monitoring mechanisms).
91
adjustments, innovations, policy, challenges, governments, purchases,
shopping, taxes, commodities, consumers
technological – ___________
pose – ___________
suitable – ___________
institutional – ___________
enforce – ___________
allow – ___________
consumption – ___________
cross-border – ___________
heterogeneous – ___________
affects – ___________
1) competition
a) alleviate
2) commodity
b) income
3) expand
c) various
4) constrain
d) deal
5) facilitate
e) goods
6) affect
f) extend
7) purchase
g) rivalry
8) transaction
h) buying
9) different
i) restrain
10) revenue
j) influence
1) revenue
2) transaction
a) the action or process of keeping financial accounts
b) an amount that has to be paid or spent to buy or
2. Choose the correct preposition.
a) Internet commerce has dramatically expanded the geographical scope
of fiscal competition as consumers and businesses can interact “virtually”
on/in a global scale.
b) At the same time, Internet commerce poses new challenges to/for tax
administration.
c) More specifically, technological improvements affect fiscal policy
on/in multiple ways.
d) In the presence to/of initially asymmetrically located shopping or trade
opportunities, these effects operate differently on different jurisdictions.
e) Tax rates and revenues fall only in/at large jurisdictions, but instead
rise in/at small jurisdictions.
f) A decline at/in the cost of profit shifting intensifies tax competition
and lowers tax rates in all jurisdictions.
3. Match the words close in their meaning.
4. Match the words and their definitions.
92
3) purchase
4) costs
5) consumption
6) accounting
obtain something
c) income, especially when of a company or
organization
d) the using up of a resource
e) the action of buying something
f) an instance of buying or selling something; a
business deal
5. Translate the excerpt into Russian.
Environmental Policies and Productivity Growth:
Evidence across Industries and Firms
Over the past twenty years, governments in OECD countries have
implemented a wide range of environmental policies with the aim of
improving environmental conditions. Policy instruments are often based on
price mechanisms (market-based instruments), increasing the opportunity
costs of pollution and environmental damage, or take the form of commandand-control policies, enforcing environmental standards (non-market
instruments). Inevitably, environmental policies affect production processes,
resource reallocation, capital investment, labor intensity and innovation
incentives. Therefore, the ongoing tightening of environmental regulation is
likely to affect not only environmental outcomes but also economic
performance.
This paper focuses on the effects of environmental policy stringency on
multi-factor productivity (MFP) growth. More stringent environmental
policies imply an additional burden for firms, inducing a shift of resources
from the traditionally “productive” uses towards pollution abatement. Hence,
firm-level productivity growth may slow down, at least in the short term. At
the same time, incentives for innovation, efficiency improvements and
within-firm reallocation may lead to higher productivity, as suggested by the
so-called Porter Hypothesis (PH; Porter, 1991; Porter and van der Linde,
1995). Jaffe and Palmer (1997) characterize three variants of the Porter
Hypothesis: the weak version implies that tighter environmental policies
stimulate innovation, whereas the strong version claims that environmental
policy may lead to higher overall productivity of firms.
Finally the narrow version of the PH states that gains in productivity and
innovation redirection are more likely under certain types of environmental
policies, such as flexible, market-based instruments. At the industry level, the
direction of the effect of environmental policies on productivity will also
depend on the resulting resource reallocation among firms: polluting firms
may exit or enter the market, decrease or increase their production or
93
outsource part of their activities or relocate abroad (in line with the pollution
haven hypothesis, see for example Levinson and Taylor (2008)).
Furthermore, if environmental policies increase barriers to entry, competition
or trade, competitive pressures will be reduced, firms’ entry-exit dynamics will
slow and industry productivity will decrease. Hence, understanding the impact
of environmental policies on MFP growth is crucial for the design and choice
of policy packages. Yet, empirical evidence on such effects has been rather
country- and context-specific and thus inconclusive. The two main constraints
on empirical work so far are poor data availability, as good cross-country
proxies for environmental policy stringency are hard to come by (…), and the
fact that identification strategies based on the introduction of one policy in
several countries at the same time are not feasible due to a scarcity of such
examples and multiple interfering factors.
In an attempt to fill this gap, we focus on the strong version of the PH
and conduct an empirical analysis of the effect of environmental policy
stringency (EPS) on productivity growth. The contribution of this analysis is
twofold. First, we employ a new cross-country proxy of environmental
policy stringency, developed by Botta and Kozluk (2014). This allows a
panel analysis of OECD countries over two decades giving a more global
perspective to the literature on the Porter Hypothesis. Second, we combine
industry and firm level results. The industry analysis considers aggregate
effects on the full firm population, that is, including entry and exit and the
relative importance of effects across firms weighted by their size, but may
suffer from aggregation bias: different effects of environmental policy
stringency on firm-level MFP growth may cancel out on the industry level.
The firm level analysis can address this heterogeneity directly, but has
limitations in terms of population representativeness and tracking firm entry
and exit dynamics. Thus a combination of analysis at the two levels offers
additional insights on the channels at work.
The results suggest that a tightening in environmental policies has a
positive short-term effect on industry productivity growth in the most
technologically advanced country-industry pairs. This positive effect
diminishes with the distance to the global technology frontier and vanishes
completely for the least productive ones. This finding is only partially
reflected in the results at the firm level: only one-fifth of the firms are able to
reap productivity gains after a tightening of environmental regulation. About
half of the firms, the least productive ones, face a negative effect on
productivity growth in the short run. This negative effect, for less
technologically advanced firms, is lost at the industry level due to
aggregation. Moreover, empirical results across the two levels of analysis
yield some support for the narrow version of the Porter Hypothesis: market-
94
based environmental policies are found to be more productivity-friendly than
policies, reallocation, investment, innovation, growth, range processes,
incentives, instruments, intensity, barriers
wide – ___________
policy – ___________
command-and-control – ___________
production – ___________
resource – ___________
capital – ___________
labor – ___________
innovation – ___________
stimulate – ___________
increase – ___________
productivity – ___________
1) implement
a) contaminate
2) aim
b) rise
non-market instruments.
OECD – Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
MFP – multi-factor productivity
From: Albrizio S., Kozluk T., Zipperer V., 2017. «Environmental policies and
productivity growth: Evidence across industries and firms,» Journal of
Environmental Economics and Management, Elsevier, vol. 81(C), pp. 209-226.
1. Write the word from the table to complete the phrases (e.g.
mechanisms – monitoring mechanisms).
2. Choose the correct preposition.
a) Policy instruments are often based in/on price mechanisms (market-
based instruments), increasing the opportunity costs of pollution and
environmental damage.
b) More stringent environmental policies imply an additional burden
for/to firms, inducing a shift of resources from the traditionally “productive”
uses towards pollution abatement.
c) Firm-level productivity growth may slow down, at least in/at the short
term.
d) Understanding the impact of environmental policies on MFP growth is
crucial for the design and choice of/from policy packages.
e) We employ a new cross-country proxy of environmental policy
stringency, developed by/with Botta and Kozluk.
f) The firm level analysis can address this heterogeneity directly, but has
limitations in/at terms of population representativeness and tracking firm
entry and exit dynamics.
3. Match the words close in their meaning.
95
3) improve
c) fulfill
4) affect
d) offer
5) stringent
e) enhance
6) imply
f) prejudice
7) pollute
g) influence
8) growth
h) goal
9) bias
i) strict
10) suggest
j) mean
experience, model, growth, stringency, insignificant, policy average
4. Complete the summary of the text. Fill in each gap with one word
from the box.
This paper investigates the impact of changes in environmental policy
_________ on industry- and firm-level productivity growth in a panel of
OECD countries. To test the strong version of the Porter Hypothesis (PH),
the author extends a neo-Schumpeterian productivity _______ to allow for
effects of environmental policies. The researcher uses a new environmental
_______ stringency (EPS) index and lets the effect of countries׳
environmental policies vary with the pollution intensity of the industry and
with the countries’ and firms’ technological advancement. It is stressed that
a tightening of environmental policy is associated with a short-term increase
in industry-level productivity_______ in the most technologically-advanced
countries. This effect diminishes with the distance to the global productivity
frontier, eventually becoming_______. In conclusion, the researcher states
that for the _______firm, no evidence of PH is found. However, the most
productive firms see a temporary boost in productivity growth, while the less
productive ones _________ a productivity slowdown.
5. Translate the excerpt into Russian.
Origin of Regional Economic Development
Economic development is a contested term, often confused with
economic growth or business development, with which it shares some
features. The latter refer mainly to the scalar expansion and success of
existing sectors or incumbent enterprises, whereas the former focuses on an
economy’s likelihood of evolving in a way better suited to a population’s
needs and interventions that might influence that evolution successfully.
Economic development as a practice is common at the national, state,
regional, provincial, city and neighborhood levels. Although the agents and
strategies operational at different levels overlap somewhat, the measures and
resources brought to bear differ markedly. Variation in the distribution of
96
power and authority among national and subnational governments, and
сontested – ___________
national – ___________
industrial – ___________
sustainable – ___________
especially differences in federal systems, gives a fractal quality to the
development strategies and approaches observed at different geographical
scales around the world.
While all levels of economic development planning involve some form
of national influence, an early definition of regional economic development
focused exclusively on national–usually public investment-driven–
intervention intended to stimulate industrial development as a means of
narrowing differences between a country’s poorest and richest regions.
Recipient regions had virtually no hand in planning or implementing the
measures of these top-down strategies, unlike more recent definitions that
emphasize indigenous strategies and actions to realize regionally preferred
forms of development.
One broad but useful definition of regional economic development–
which we modify slightly– describes it the “[planned] application of
economic processes and resources available to a region that result in the
sustainable development of, and desired outcomes for, a region” (Stimson,
Stough et al., 2006, p. 6).
Foundational to the emergence of regional economic development (RED)
as a planning topic was a collaboration in 1964 of two well-known planning
academics: John Friedmann and William Alonso. Friedmann, then a
planning professor at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, was
completing the publication draft of his dissertation titled Regional
Development Policy: A Case Study of Venezuela (1966), while Alonso, a
professor at Harvard, had just published his dissertation, the eventual classic
Location and Land Use (1964). Coming at the question from different
directions, they co-edited Regional Development and Planning (1964), a
book widely read and considered to have formed the evolutionary basis for
RED, although its shortcomings were not overlooked. “(One) drawback is
the volume's view that regional development planning mainly is and should
be national...They look upon planning regions as areas where socioeconomic
functions are carried out. While this is an important consideration, they do
not pay enough attention to the governmental unit which has the power to
plan, develop, and operate regional programs” (Hirsch, 1965, p. 1207).
From: Bergman E.M., Feser E. Regional Economic Development
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/333390300
1. Write the word from the text to complete the phrases (e.g. affordable
– affordable housing).
97
geographical – ___________
2. Choose the correct word.
a) She often refers for/to her notes when giving a speech.
b) He focused the audience’s attention on/at the most urgent problems.
c) Did he have a hand at/in this decision?
d) The trial resulted in/with an acquittal.
e) This college, unless/unlike other colleges in the region, lets students pay
tuition by either the semester, the year or multiple years.
3. Complete the summary of the text. Fill in each gap with one word.
Economic development is a contested term often confused with
economic _____ or business development, which focuses on an economy's
evolution suited to a ________'s needs and interventions. It is common at
national, state, regional, provincial, _____, and neighborhood levels, but
measures and resources differ significantly. Regional economic ________
(RED) emerged as a planning topic in 1964 when John Friedmann and
William Alonso co-edited Regional Development and Planning, which
focuses on the planned application of economic processes and resources to
achieve sustainable development. The ___________ of power and authority
among national and subnational governments, as well as differences in
federal systems, give a fractal quality to development strategies and
approaches at different geographical scales.
4. Answer the questions.
a) According to the authors, why is “economic development” a contested
term?
b) How do the authors define “economic development”?
c) Why do the strategies and approaches in economic development differ
around the world?
d) Do recipient regions have any impact on planning or implementing the
strategy measures?
e) How did J.Friedmann and W.Alonso contribute to the RED field?
5. Translate the excerpt into Russian.
Can Perceived Returns Explain Enrollment Gaps
in Postgraduate Education?
98
In many countries, including the US and the UK, intergenerational
mobility is low. At the same time, wage inequality has been increasing
rapidly, especially at the upper tail of the wage distribution. These increases
at the upper tail of the wage distribution have been linked to skill-biased
technological change, which has led to a steadily rising college-earnings
premium. Traditionally, studies examining college earnings premia and skillbiased technological change have focused on differences between collegeeducated workers and workers without a college degree. More recently,
attention has been drawn to the rising wage inequality within the group of
college-educated workers and the role of postgraduate education in
explaining this pattern.
In this paper, we aim to fill this gap in the literature and shed light on
students’ motives to obtain postgraduate education. In order to do so we
proceed in three steps. First, we survey a representative sample of 1002
undergraduate students in England and elicit beliefs about the returns to
postgraduate education as well as intentions to enroll in a postgraduate degree.
This unique dataset allows us to document individual heterogeneity in
perceptions about different immediate and later-life benefits and costs of
postgraduate education as well as investigate whether beliefs differ with the
socioeconomic background of the respondent. Second, we estimate a choice
model in which we allow for differences in beliefs and preferences across
socioeconomic groups and examine whether differences in beliefs about
returns can account for the socioeconomic gap in students’ intentions to pursue
postgraduate education. Finally, we investigate whether students with different
socioeconomic backgrounds differ in their undergraduate experiences, and
examine whether these experiences predict their perceptions about the
immediate benefits and costs of continuing to postgraduate education.
We elicit individual beliefs about the returns to postgraduate education
using hypothetical investments scenarios. This allows us to overcome the
problem that educational choices are consistent with many different
combinations of preferences and beliefs. More specifically, we ask students
to imagine scenarios in which they enroll or do not enroll in postgraduate
education. We then elicit their perceptions about a range of different
immediate and later-life outcomes that are of pecuniary and non-pecuniary
nature. To get a better sense of how students experience studying towards
their undergraduate degrees, we administer a novel questionnaire designed to
capture students’ actual experiences.
Several results emerge from our study. First, undergraduate students who
are the first generation in their family to go to university state a 5 percentage
99
point lower likelihood of continuing to postgraduate education relative to
continuing-generation students.
Second, the estimates of our choice model and results of our
decomposition analysis reveal that around 70% of the first-generation vs.
continuing-generation gap in students’ intentions to enroll in a postgraduate
degree can be accounted for by differences in beliefs about returns. We also
find that students who have at least one parent with a postgraduate degree
state, on average, an 8 percentage point higher likelihood of enrolling in a
postgraduate degree relative to students who have at least one parent with a
first degree, but no parent with a postgraduate degree. Again, differences in
beliefs can explain a sizeable share of this gap.
From: Boneva Т., Golin M., Rauh Ch. Can perceived returns explain enrollment
gaps in postgraduate education? Labour Economics. 2022. Volume 77.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0927537121000336
1. Write the word from the text to complete the phrases (e.g. distribution
– wage distribution).
a) ______ – biased technological change.
b) College – ______ workers.
c) ______ degree.
d) Later – ______ benefits.
e) ______ backgrounds.
f) ______ nature.
2. Choose the correct word or phrase.
a) Skill-Biased Technical Change is a shift in the production technology
that favors skilled over unskilled labor by increasing/decreasing its
relative productivity and, therefore, its relative demand.
b) She is developing new theories that might discard/shed some light on
these unusual phenomena.
c) They expelled/enrolled several volunteers for the study.
d) I want a decent reply/return for investments I have made.
e) In 2020, the police interviewed all 70 of the employees of the company
but failed to elicit/evoke any strong suspects.
f) There is a strong likelihood/livelihood that he will be reelected.
100
Соседние файлы в предмете [НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]