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Файл:Английский для юристов основы перевода международных документов. Учебное пособие
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2. Names of countries,
provinces, cities, towns, villages:
Franca, Great Britain, California,
Katanga, Oslo, Delhi, Rome.
No article is used with such
attributes as norh(ern), south(ern),
ancient, old, central: Old England,
Ancient Greece, Southern France.
3. Names of bays: Hudson Bay,
Baffin Bay
4. Names of separate mountain
peaks, separate islands, water
falls: Elbrus, Mont Blanc, Everest,
Vesuvius, Sicily, Cuba, Haiti,Cyprus,
Madagascar, Niagara Falls
5. When the names of lakes are
preceded by the noun “lake” no
article is used: Lake Baikal, Lake
Ohio, Lake Ladoga, Lake Ontario
6. Names of peninsulas: Indo-
China, Kamchatka, Labrador.
Names of deserts: the Sahara, the Gobi,
The definite article is used with the pattern
But: countries: the FRG, The USA, the
Ukraine, the Argentine (but Argentina), the
Congo, the Lebanon, the Netherlands, the
Cameroon, the Sudan, the Senegal.
Provinces: the Crimea, the Caucasus, the
Ruhr, the Tyrol, the Trasvaal, the Riviera.
Cities: the Hague
Names of oceans, seas, rivers, straits,
channels, canals: the Pacific, the Atlantic,
the Baltic (sea), the Mediterranean (sea),
the Black Sea, the South Seas, the
Magellan Strait, the Bering Strait, the
Dardanelles, the
Bosporus, the English Channel, the Suez
Canal, the Volga, the Nile, the Thames, the
Amazon
Names of mountain chains, groups of
islands: the Rocky Mountains, the Andes,
the Alps, the Urals, the Philippines, the
Bahamas,the Canaries, the Bermudas.
Mountain passes: the Saint Gotthard Pass
The names of lakes are usually used with
definite article: the Baikal, the Ladoga, the
Ontario.
When the word “peninsula” is
mentioned:
the Balkan Peninsula, the Kola Peninsula
the Kara-Kum.
a
c
ommon noun + of + a proper name: the
City of New York, the Cape of Good Hope,
the Gulf of Mexico, the Bay of Biscay, the
Lake of Geneva, the Island of Majorca
11
Put necessary articles into the sentences:
1. They visited a village in ______Andes.
2. They went to _____Philippines on their honeymoon.
3. _____Korea is near ____Japan and _____China.
4. Have you ever seen _________Mount Fuji?
5. ______Azores are a group of islands in ____ Atlantic.
6. She went to __________United Kingdom to study English.
7. They drove round__________ Corsica.
8. She always loved skiing in ______Alps.
9. I often go on holiday to _______ Canary Islands.
10. They loved visiting _____ Serbia.
¾ TRANSLATION PRACTICE
Translate this extract from the Convention on international information
security and say what measures States must take to ensure information
security in the world:
Преамбула
Государ с т в а -участники настоящей Конвенции,
отмечая значительный прогресс в развитии информационно-коммуникационных технологий и средств, формирующих информационное пространство,
выражая озабоченность угрозами, связанными с возможностями использования таких технологий и средств в целях, не совместимых с задачами
обеспечения международной безопасности и стабильности, как в гражданской, так и в военной сферах,
пр
идавая важное значение международной информационной безопасности
как одному из ключевых элементов системы международной безопасности,
будучи убеждёнными в том, что дальнейшее углубление доверия и развитие взаимодействия государств-участников в вопросах обеспечения международной информационной безопасности являются настоятельной необходимостью и отвечают их интересам, принимая во внимание важное
значение информационной безопасности для р
свобод человека и гражданина,
….........................................................................................................................
еализации основных прав и
12
будучи убеждены в необходимости проведения в приоритетном порядке
общей политики, нацеленной на защиту общества от правонарушений в
информационном пространстве, в том числе путем принятия соответствующих законодательных актов и укрепления международного сотрудничества,
сознавая глубокие перемены, вызванные внедрением цифровых технологий, объединением и продолжающейся глобализацией компьютерных сетей,
будучи озабоченными угрозой того, чт
использоваться для совершения уголовных преступлений, и что доказательства совершения таких правонарушений могут храниться в этих сетях
и передаваться по ним,
признавая необходимость сотрудничества между государствами и частным
бизнесом в борьбе против правонарушений в информационном пространстве и необходимость защиты законных интересов в сфере использования
азвития информационно-коммуникационных технологий,
и р
…..........................................................................................................................
согласились о нижеследующем:
Гла ва 1. ОБЩИЕ ПОЛОЖЕНИЯ
Статья 1. Предмет и цель Конвенции
Предметом регулирования настоящей Конвенции является деятельность
государств по обеспечению международной информационной безопасности.
Целью настоящей Конвенции является противодействие использованию
информационно-коммуникационных технологий для нарушения международного мира и безопасности, а также установление мер, способствующих
тому, чтобы деятельность государств в информационном пространстве:
способствовала общему социальному и экономическому развитию;
существлялась таким образом, чтобы быть совместимой с задачами под-
о
держания международного мира и безопасности;
соответствовала общепризнанным принципам и нормам международного
права, включая принципы мирного урегулирования споров и конфликтов,
неприменения силы, невмешательства во внутренние дела, уважения прав
и основных свобод человека;
была совместимой с правом каждого искать, получать и распространять
информацию и идеи, ка
к это зафиксировано в документах ООН, с учётом
того, что такое право может быть ограничено законодательством для защиты интересов национальной и общественной безопасности каждого
государства, а также для предотвращения неправомерного использования
и несанкционированного вмешательства в информационные ресурсы;
о компьютерные сети могут также
13
гарантировала свободу технологического обмена и свободу обмена информацией с учетом уважения суверенитета государств и их существующих политических, исторических и культурных особенностей.
¾ IDEAS TO THINK AND SPEAK ABOUT
1. Do you think international information security is provided nowa-
days?
2. Can you give any examples that prove your point of view?
3. Why is it so important to guarantee information security?
Unit 2. Origins of the international law of treaties
¾ STARTING UP
1. When do you think the international law of treaties originated?
2. What were the main reasons for this?
¾ READING
A. Read the texts and comment on the principles of the international trea-
ty law. Are they the same nowadays in comparison with the previous
years?
From the history of public international law
The history of public international law examines the evolution and development of public international law in both state practice and conceptual understanding. Modern international law developed out of Renaissance Europe and is
strongly entwined with the development of western political organisation at that
time. The development of European notions of sovereignty and nation states
would necessitate the development of methods for interstate relations and standards of behaviour, and these would lay the foundations of what would become
international law. However, while the origins of the modern system of international law can be traced back 400 years, the development of the concepts and
14
practice that would underpin that system can be traced back to ancient historical politics and relationships thousands of years old. Important concepts are
derived from the practice between Greek city-states and the Roman law concept
of ius gentium (which regulated contacts between Roman citizens and nonRoman people). These principles were not universal however. In East Asia,
political theory was based not on the equality of states, but rather the cosmological supremacy of the Emperor of China.
Early examples of treaties cover the time around 2100BC when an agreement between the rulers of the city-states of Lagash and Umma in Mesopotamia, inscribed on a stone block, setting a proscribed boundary between their
two states, was concluded. Around 1000BC, an agreement was signed between
Ramses II of Egypt and the king of the Hittites establishing "eternal peace and
brotherhood" between their two nations: dealing with respect for each other’s
territory and establishing a form of defensive alliance. The ancient Greeks before Alexander the Great formed many small states that constantly interacted.
In peace and in war, an inter-state culture evolved that prescribed certain rules
for how these states would interact. These rules did not apply to interactions
with non-Greek states, but among themselves the Greek inter-state community
resembled in some respects the modern international community.
The Roman Empire did not develop an international law, as it acted without
regard to any external rules in its dealings with those territories that were not
already part of the empire. The Romans did, however, form municipal laws
governing the interactions between private Roman citizens and foreigners.
These laws codified some ideas of basic fairness, and attributed some rules to
an objective, independent "natural law." These ideas of fairness and natural law
have survived and are reflected in modern international law.
The international law of treaties
Nowadays as in the past, treaties play a fundamental role in international
relations. Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice gives a
good starting point for the understanding of the sources of international law.
According to this article international law finds its origin in the following three
sources:
− international conventions of general or particular nature;
− international custom, as evidence of a general practice accepted as law;
− the general principles of law recognized by civilized nations.
15
The International Court of Justice in the Hague, the Netherlands
The idea of justice and equity originating in the philosophy of natural law is
not to be discarded as a source of international law, since it is the opinion of the
International Court of Justice itself that whatever the legal argumentation of the
judge, his or her decisions have to be just and in that sense must correspond to
justice and equity. Moreover, the judges of the International Court of Justice are
expressly authorized to decide a case ex aequo et bono, if the parties agree thereto, i.e. to found their judgments on arguments of equity.
These sources of international law are supplemented by two subsidiary
means for the determination of rules of law (Article 38 (1)(d) of the Statute),
i.e. by judicial decisions (although even the decisions of the International Court
of Justice have binding force only between the parties and in respect of the particular cases submitted to the Court - Article 59 of the Statute) and the teachings
of the most highly qualified publicists of the various nations.
Although it is possible to conclude international conventions orally, almost
all of them are concluded in written form. Originally, the international treaty
rules were either part of customary international law or belonged to the general
principles of law; today the rules governing international treaties which are
concluded between States in the written form are codified. The codification
governing this legal area is the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties of
1969 which has entered into force on 27 January 1980. Although the Vienna
Convention is not applicable to treaties concluded before its entry into force
(Article 4) it is de facto applied to those too, since it incorporates – at least to a
large extent - customary rules which were already applicable before this date.
Moreover, the Vienna Convention applies only in the absence of other applicable agreements and is therefore of subsidiary character.
16
The Vienna Convention which consists of 85 articles, eight parts and an an-
nex includes and materializes five fundamental legal principles, i.e.
− free consent;
− good faith;
− pacta sunt servanda ( a treaty is binding upon the parties);
− rebus sic stantibus (a fundamental change of circumstances jeopardizes
the validity of treaties);
− favour contractus (it is better to seek the maintenance rather than the
termination of a treaty).
Free consent and good faith are the leading principles which ought to be
always followed by States in the course of their relations with one another.
The other major principles which also emanate from the Roman Law tradition apply in particular either to the conclusion of treaties or to the interpretation or application of treaties.
(Walter Gehr “The international law of treaties”)
B. Answer the questions:
1. What did modern international law develop out of?
2. What led to the development of methods for establishing relations be-
tween nations?
3. The origins of the modern system of international law can be traced
back 600 years, can’t they?
4. What are the examples of early treaties?
5. Are the basic ideas of ancient states used in modern treaties?
6. Can you describe sources of the international law?
7. How many principles is the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties
of 1969 based on?
8. What areas do these principles apply to?
¾ VOCABULARY
A. Find words and phrases which collocate with these words:
understanding, state, relations, law, peace, community,
force, respect, principles
17
d
gy
a
c
B. Make your own sentences with these collocations and pictures:
C. Find the definitions of the following words:
to be entwined with sovereignty to underpin equality
supremacy alliance fairness
binding termination
to be connecte
very closely
with something
The aim of th
the information
technolo
understanding, st
for
to violate
the right of a country
to rule itself
18
y
obligatory
to be an important
basic part of
something
A situation in which
a country has more
power or influence
than another one
the right of a countr
to rule itself
A situation in which
a country has more
D. Complete the sentences with the words from exercise C.
1. These principles _____________ the category of sovereignty.
2. After his accession to the throne William spent some time at the court
of the English king, Henry II.; then, quarrelling with Henry, he arranged
in 1168 the first definite treaty of ________between France and Scotland,
and with Louis
3. The _______of Holland and New Zealand was offered to the queen of
England, but she, though promising secret support, declined.
4. Justice is administered, on the whole, with _________and impartiality;
but the taxation seems too heavy for the means of the people, indeed it is
affirmed by trustworthy natives that the well-to-do classes are being gradually drained of their property.
5. They are forty-eight in number, and on them Magna Carta was based,
the work of converting them into a charter, which was regarded as a much
more ____________form of engagement, being taken in hand immediately.
6. The foreseen adverse _______of this long-drawn cause led to Henry's
legislation.
7. In 1677 the fundamental laws of West New Jersey were published, and
recognized in a most absolute form the principles of democratic
________and perfect freedom of conscience.
VII.
19
8. The president of this country always insisted on the ________ of one
of the most powerful states in the world.
9. Public confidence in politicians must _________ our democracy.
10. Since concordats are contracts they give rise to that special mutual ob-
ligation which results from every agreement freely entered into; for a contract is ______________ on both parties to it.
E. Complete the sentences with the prepositions:
by in on to to to to under
1. Parties __________ a treaty are the states or the international organisations which have consented to be bound ________ the treaty and for
which the treaty is _________ force.
2. By becoming a signatory _________ a convention with 172 other
countries, Russia is taking an important step to facilitate anti-smoking
legislation.
3. ________ the Convention on the Rights of the Child, persons under
the age of 18 years are entitled __________ special protection.
4. International laws apply ______ the citizens of all signatory nations.
5. The Council of Ministers of the East African Community is a policy
organ whose decisions, directives and regulations are binding _______
partner states.
¾ LANGUAGE REVIEW
The Passive Voice
The Passive Voice is used in the following cases:
1. If the action is more important than the agent.
This convention was signed in 1868. (The important thing is what happened,
not who did it.)
2. If the agent is not known.
They are supposed to conclude an agreement. (Some parties suppose that.)
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