Laser Metal Deposition (LMD) is a versatile additive manufacturing (AM) tech­nique that injects ne metal powder into a focused laser beam, melting it into a small pool on the target surface. Complex geometries can be built layer-by-layer by moving the workpiece under the beam, creating entirely new parts, adding struc­tures to existing ones, or even repairing damaged components. While powder ow, speed, and laser power signicantly inuence the nal properties like deposition height, width, surface nish, and mechanics, LMD’s true strength lies in its ability to build intricate objects having graded composition or porosity, even using diverse biomaterials like shape memory alloys, stainless steel, and titanium [20]. Despite the challenge of maintaining consistent layer thickness (typically 0.3–1 mm), LMD’s potential to create customized, high-performance parts from various materi­als makes it a powerful tool in diverse elds.

The advancements in polymer technology for additive manufacturing are signi­cantly impacting materials science and technology. The creation of this polymer­based equipment can be utilized in for human tissue failure problems. AM library of polymeric materials has grown over time to maximize its uses in the biomedical eld. The production of biocompatible polymers for SLA has advanced signi­cantly, potentially replacing traditional lithographic acrylic resins that may have harmful effects. Conversely, the results of the in vivo placement of polymeric devices produced using fused deposition modeling (FDM) or surface laser sintering (SLS) encouraged further research toward their permanent integration into standard interventional surgery procedures. The polymer components obtained naturally have certain innate bioactive and biomimetic qualities to create production methods that are more environmentally sustainable. Moreover, solution-based AM is the pre­ferred method for functionalizing materials with bioactive substances. This is seen in the case of hydrogels with regulated porosity and an exterior form that encapsu­lates growth factors or cells, and in the polymeric matrix, they are endowed with nano- or microporosity. Additionally, much work has gone into creating composite implants to improve mechanical characteristics and bioactivity [38–45]. AM is also used in bone implant device fabrication. Generally, bioresorbable polymers have many advantages over metallic implants [46–56].

The material extrusion (ME) process selectively dispenses the contents from a noz­zle tip across a moveable stage. A polymer composition that can bind together at a temperature (without degradation) can potentially be utilized in ME.A steady noz­zle speed and pressure would result in a constant cross-sectional diameter for the material deposited. When a layer is nished, the printhead advances by a stepsize (usually by 100–300μm) to allow for the creation of the subsequent layer on top of the old one. Typical extrusion-based phases are as follows: [1]: (1–2) lling of the polymer components; (3) applying pressure to push the printing components; (4) extrusion; (5) deposition of layers on a predened CAD model; (6) joining of the component parts to create a cohesive, solid framework [23]. FDM possesses a num­ber of benets, such as the elimination of the need for post-processing steps, as well as the inexpensive nature of supplies, which makes the process economical, fast, user-friendly, and broadly accessible [24].

Studies like Patel etal. highlight innovations in UV-curable elastomer systems for DLP-based AM, showcasing an enhanced ability to create pliable and exible three-dimensional constructions and gadgets. Mu etal.’s research explores conduc­tive structures made of photoresin and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), showcasing their potential applications in capacitive sensors, electrically activated shape memory composites, and stretchable circuits [29]. Adjusting MWCNT

The development of sophisticated invitro 3D models has been signicantly aided by the advancement of additive manufacturing (AM), which has made it possible to fabricate four essential components in a single continuous process: microuidic chips, live cells, or microtissues for culturing, stimulus loading components, and readout sensors. The construction of heterogeneous microenvironments that resem­ble genuine tissues is made possible by bioprinting’s capacity to accurately arrange various materials, including hydrogels, cells, growth factors, and bacteria, in sequential order with great spatial precision. Incorporating energy actuators (e.g., electrical and mechanical transducers) and sensors on chips allows for applying stimuli to cells and monitoring their activities, promoting the maturation and func­tionality of micronized organs. Some approaches integrate mechanical strain­inducing actuators, electrochemical sensors on the same chip, and complex uid handling modules. Alternatively, magnetic particles or memory-shape actuators can induce mechanical stimulation.

Different materials demand unique manufacturing processes for seamless integra­tion into biomedical products/devices. However, one commonality across all classes of materials is the increased adoption of additive manufacturing techniques in mak­ing customized parts. Design, being an integral part of the 3D printing process com­mands more focused research, especially in the inverse design workow, to make standardized techniques of rendering image les and 3D models from patient scan images. This can certainly increase the reach of 3D printing to the masses, as more clinicians will be trained in the process. Also, every 3D printing process has a printer resolution or dimensional constraint, depending on the feed material, limiting the printing accuracy and size. This can be overcome by carefully optimizing printing parameters that are unique to the feed material. Additionally, the emergence of 4D printing [35], which uses smart materials, such as shape memory alloys [9] and shape memory polymers [36], has further extended the capabilities of conventional 3D printing. This can now enable the fabrication of intricate and biomimetic