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unique properties such as high surface area-to-volume ratio, high surface reactivity, high absorption capacity, abundance of surface-activated functional groups, and better thermal stabilities [117]. Despite the proven benets of NMs, one cannot ignore their associated risks, regulation, and management after shelf-life. It is always recommended to employ nanotechnology with a balanced perception with respect to environmental health and public safety [118120].
A. Chakraborty et al.
3.7.1 Advantages ofNanobiosensors
Response time, i.e. how quickly the sensor can detect a change in signal, is an important parameter for any efcient biosensors. A high surface-to-volume ratio and high reactivity of nanomaterials are major factors behind the fast response time of the nanobiosensors. Also, these along with high adsorption property of nanoma­terials used in the transducers, the nanobiosensors show high permeability to ana­lytes resulting in fast response time compared to conventional techniques and are capable to provide instantaneous results.
The application of NMs has enabled the attainment of high levels of signal reso­lution and such sensors are projected to provide better signal-to-noise ratio. Nanomaterials provide extremely high surface area/volume ratio which makes them gain more sensitivity for the detection of a single molecule or atom or chemical molecules even at trace level. The ultrahigh surface-to-volume ratios of nanostruc­tures render them with extraordinary electric properties. Such sensors can be extremely sensitive to detect any surface-adsorbed species.
Nanosensors are extremely small devices capable of detecting and responding to a wide array of analytes. Their very small size, reliable and highly sensitive nature provides researchers with a lab-on-chip ready for real-time analysis of several clini­cal procedures. Nanosensing techniques with smaller footprint that are highly por­table are gaining popularity both in researcher and consumer levels, encouraging more consumer products based on nanobiosensing being available in market.
Nanobiosensors are highly selective for their respective analytes, as they are able to selectively detect the analyte of desire from complex media with presence of other interfering substances. Combining analyte-specic receptor molecules on the surface of nanotransducers (e.g. enzymes, antibodies) ensure the effective selectiv­ity in nanobiosensors.
3.7.2 Limitations ofNanobiosensors
Recent manufacturing progresses have made possible fabrication of NMs of differ­ent properties, sizes and shapes. Their endless possibility to combine with wide range of bio-selective ligands helps in developing highly sensitive and selective detection systems. Though the overall nanobiosensing technique provides great
3 Recent Advancements in Developing Nanobiosensors for Treating Inammatory…
103
[8, 25]
[8, 25]
Graphene-quantum dots, CNT, silver
iron/zinc oxide
AuNP [25, 105]
nanoparticles
[25]
Silver nanoclusters, MB1, MB2, hairpin
oligonucleotide probes
[25]
nanoparticles on bare gold electrode,
2
Carbon nanotubes [25, 107]
nanocomposites
TiO
[25]
[25]
GCE
(continued)
109]
Fluorescein, rhodamine 6G [25, 108,
(cadmium sulphide), reduced GO-based
CNT
Enzymatic sensors, electrochemical,
Electrochemical, uorescent,
Electrochemical, uorescent Ferrocene, gold, silver, platinum, silica/
Inammatory
disease Biomarker(s) Types of nanobiosensor used Nanomaterial present References
1 Type II diabetes Blood glucose/ketone
Sl
no.
Table 3.1 Use of nanobiosensors for diagnosing inammatory diseases of human
Fluorescent, electrochemical,
APOe-4, amyloid beta,
bodies/free fatty acids,
vaspin
2 Alzheimer’s
ELISA or RIA-based immunosensors,
aptamer-based, or voltametric
immunosensors
IL-6, TNF-alpha, IL-1beta,
alpha-1 antitrypsin,
acetylcholine
disease
3 Myocardial
Electrochemical EGO, gold nanowires, SPCE [25, 106]
electrochemical, uorescent
nanosensors, nano aptasensors
C-reactive protein,
Nt-pro-BNP
infarction
4 Parkinson’s disease Alpha-synuclein, miR-195,
immunosensors
CXCL10, TNF a, TGF-b,
dopamine, homovanilic acid
5 Multiple sclerosis IgG index, IL-23, IL-17,
Nanocantilever
ELISA-RIA-based immunosensor,
amperometric, electrochemical
IL-6, IL-8, TNF-alpha,
NY-ESO-1, VOC
N, NGRN; MMP-9
IL-1beta, C cvrwer65567-
reactive protein, cTnI
diseases
7 Cardiovascular
6 Melanoma RNA of cancer cells,
uorescent nanosensors
9 Gastric cancer miR-106a and let-7a Electrochemical AuNP and CdSe (cadmium selenide) CdS
8 Lung cancer miRNA-182 Electrochemical, immunosensors MoS2/Ti3C2 nanohybrids and modied
10 Liver cancer AFP/CEA Electrochemical; immunosensors,
104
A. Chakraborty et al.
[25, 110,
111]
[25, 112]
Surface ligated Ga-Au encapsulated
mesoporous silica, SPIOS, USPIOS,
PNT-modied PGE
nanostructured PANI/GO and AuNR;
ssDNA probe (BRCA1)/PANHS/MWCNT/
GCE
Aptamer-based nanomaterials [112, 113]
cc AuNPs [113]
[8, 114]
/Au nanoparticles, core shell
4
O
2
nanoparticles/silica nanoparticles
11-MUA on Au electrode surface [115, 116]
Fe
Graphene, ZnO [115]
Inammatory
disease Biomarker(s) Types of nanobiosensor used Nanomaterial present References
Sl
no.
Table 3.1 (continued)
Nano immunosensor, magneto-
nanosensor, amperometric sandwich-
type immunosensor
Electrochemical; cyclic voltammetry AuNP-grafted functionalized graphene and
TMPRSS2-ETS
11 Prostate cancer PSA, PCA-3,
12 Breast cancer HER-2, miR-155, BRCA1,
BRCA2, ING-1, NY-BR-1,
B7-H4
Aptamer-based sensors, QCM
biosensors
Immunosensor and electrochemical
sensors
Graphene-based, electrochemical,
cyclic voltametric nanosensors
Immunosensors, electrochemical
sensors
CA 549, CASA, MCA,
MOV-1, TAG 72, B7-H4
HPV DNA
KRAS, CEA, EGF, MLH1,
VIM, SEPT9, PI3K
13 Ovarian cancer CA125, HCG, p53, CEA,
14 Cervical cancer CEA, SCC Ag, CA19-9,
15 Colorectal cancer CpG islands of APC, BRAF,
Graphene-based nanoimmunosensors,
neutrophil-derived enzymes
Immobilized anti-cyclic
16 Periodontitis ODAM, MMP-8, monocyte/
17 Arthritis and
nanorod-based sensors
citrullinated peptide
rheumatoid
arthritis
3 Recent Advancements in Developing Nanobiosensors for Treating Inammatory…
105
benet-cost ratio, development cost of certain nanomaterials is extremely high, many industries still prefer traditional biosensing platforms and thus, nanomedicine also struggles to reach out to the outskirts and rural areas [121]. Nanobiosensors are often highly sensitive to different non-target species in analyte solution due to unique surface properties of nanomaterials, often leading to generation of false sig­nals. It sometimes becomes absolutely essential to prepare the analytical sample following rigorous steps for proper purication of target analytes.
Due to their more recent development, most nanobiosensors are not extensively calibrated against a wide range of analytical species, which makes them not cent per cent error-free sometimes. Most nanobiosensors are fabricated as to be used once and then disposed of. This single-use approach in many cases does elevate the cost as well as poses an environmental risk as well. In-vivo use of nanobiosensors often opens the door for nanotoxicity as several nanomaterials may be associated with unknown toxicity proles which will eventually show up with prolonged use.
3.8 Conclusion andFuture Direction
Considering the comparative efcacy of conventional biosensors and nanobiosen­sors, it is evident that nanobiosensors can provide better sensing ability in the pres­ence of analytes at ultra-low concentrations. Moreover, nanobiosensor technology particularly seems to be the only option in diagnosing complicated human diseases wherein collection and availability of samples is a tough task to meet. Recently employed nanospheres, nanoowers, nanorods, nanotubes, nanoscaffolds alongside structurally diverse nanoparticles and composites have been found to be extremely useful in designing the appropriate nanobioconjugates with enzymes and/or anti­bodies for achieving high degree of accuracy in sensing. However, limited avail­ability of the characterization devices, production cost and infrastructural requirements are the major setbacks to be overcome in the near future.
Acknowledgement SM acknowledges the University Grants Commission (UGC) (Ref no. F.2-12/2019) (STRIDE) and KNU-UGC STRIDE (Ref no. KNU/R/STRIDE/1077/21) and Department of Science and Technology-Science & Engineering Research Board (DST-SERB) (Ref no. SRG/2021/002605) for supporting his research activities and his research laboratory through awarding research projects.

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