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Nanobiotechnology and Artificial Intelligence in Gastrointestinal Diseases
can be transferred into clinical practice. We believe that nanotechnology has a bright
future and advances both imaging and treatments.
Acknowledgments
One of the authors MZ thanks NSF (USA), EIR (USA) and FTTP as seed grant
fund for providing financial support in the form Postdoctoral Research Associate
fellowship.
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Nanobiotechnology and Artificial Intelligence in
Gastrointestinal Diseases
Vivek K Chaturvedi, Anurag Kumar Singh, Jay Singh and Dawesh P Yadav
Chapter 7
Role of nanoparticles for the treatment of
gastric cancer
Ravi Kumar Yadav, Shefali Singh, Zeba Azim, Niraj Kumar Goswami and
Navneet Yadav
The second-leading cause of cancer-related fatalities worldwide is gastric cancer (GC).
The advancement in medicine will probably be linked to the research of cancer biology,
followed by the formation of a customized and molecular-based method for the
administration of anticancer medications. Proper medications for cancerous diseases
rely highly on their timely diagnosis for which in vivo molecular imaging technique is
popular but a trend for a more feasible approach is seen as molecular imaging requires
specialized molecular probes. The use of nanoparticles (NPs) is the current paradigm for
diagnosing and treating GC. With the advent of extensive explorations in the field of
nanotechnology (NT), NPs have been realized to have proficient curative properties for
GC. Since the past decade, extensive research work has been allocated to applications of
NPs in the direction of therapeutics and diagnosis. Several reports have documented
that NPs-based therapeutic agents overcome problems associated with conventional
therapy. However, it seems that perusal of the characteristics of NPs and their
interactive efficacies with biological entities is vital to analyze the potential of NPsbased nanomedicines and NPs-based diagnostic protocols. Today green synthesized
NPs are also used as a potential agent for GC treatment. This study is significant since
NPs might also pose certain side effects and toxicity and these aspects should be well
addressed prior to the utilization of NPs in biological systems. This chapter will
encompass the diverse purview of NPs and how this can be a plausible alternative in the
diagnosis and therapeutic treatment of gastric cancer.
7.1 Introduction
Biotic and abiotic variables contribute to a variety of diseases that impact humans.
These illnesses not only have an effect on day-to-day life but also result in fatalities
doi:10.1088/978-0-7503-6134-7ch7 7-1 ª IOP Publishing Ltd 2024
Nanobiotechnology and Artificial Intelligence in Gastrointestinal Diseases
for people. As a result of the way we live, cancer is increasingly the most common
life-threatening illness in the world. According to Piazuelo and Correa [1], one of the
most prevalent cancer kinds worldwide is GC. Despite the anticipated drop in
incidence, GC still ranks third in mortality and fifth in morbidity among all
diagnosed malignancies, making it a major cause of cancer-related fatalities [2].
The high prevalence and poor prognosis of stomach cancer is a public health
concern, particularly in East Asia [3]. The majority of patients are diagnosed at an
advanced stage, with a poor prognosis and quality of life. The World Health
Organisation (WHO) categorises GC as papillary, tubular, mucinous, or poorly
cohesive carcinomas. However, no accurate biological categorization approach has
been established, and clinical relevance is restricted [4].
Currently, the most common clinical treatments for GC are surgical resection,
chemotherapy, radiation, and molecular targeted therapy [5]. With the discovery of
various molecular pathways in malignancy, molecular targeted therapy has seen
significant progress in recent years. However, only a few targets, like VEGFR-2,
HER2, PD-1, and others, are utilized to create GC medicines [6]. Furthermore, the
most classic small molecule inhibitors act on the active site of the target to impede its
action. The development of targeted therapy for GC is currently limited due to the
scarcity of pharmacological targets and related technology. NT is a novel and
promising technology and its application in various areas like agriculture, industrial,
medicinal, and energy production is appreciable. NT in medicine and healthcare is
referred to as nanomedicine, and it has been utilized to combat some of the most
common ailments, viz., heart-related disease and cancer. Due to its diverse imaging
and therapeutic capabilities, the nano platform has emerged as a potential technique
for cancer theranostics and surgery guidance [7]. Because of their distinctively small
sizes, NPs are used as contrast agents and as carriers for the administration of
medications. For instance, cancer tissue has poor lymphatic drainage and leaky
vasculature, NPs are more likely to infiltrate the interstitium and prolong tumor
retention [8]. Addressing concerns including in vivo stability, rapid clearance of
contrast agents, and the limited effectiveness and adverse effects of the usual treatment
are crucial [9]. Specific ligands were also used to functionalize and modify some
nanomaterials (NMs) (figure 7.1). NPs have diverse application in medicine and ever
Figure 7.1. Applications of NPs in the field of medicine.
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Nanobiotechnology and Artificial Intelligence in Gastrointestinal Diseases
since their pioneering work in the field of medicine, they have performed substantially
in easing several complex protocols of cancer diagnosis, have complemented well for
therapeutics and can prove remarkable in the field of immunization.
7.2 Nanoparticles as drug delivery systems
NPs are regarded as magic bullets due to their special size and shape. Paul Ehrlich’s
idea of a miraculous cure has been refined into nanomedicine. To prepare a targeteddelivery system, a wide range of NPs can be utilized. NPs enable the modification of
parameters such as the solubility, diffusivity, half-life, toxicity, pharmacokinetics,
pharmacodynamics, and biodistribution of medications and therapeutic agents,
adding a new level of engineering and control to medicine.
7.2.1 Advantages of nanoparticles for drug delivery
NT has the potential to aid in the treatment of chronic human ailments by delivering
medications to particular places. In recent decades, effective and safe drug delivery via
nanocarriers has been created. Drug delivery systems (DDSs) based on NMs can deliver
drugs to diseased cells in a controlled releasing way. NMs are nanoscale materials (sizes
ranging from 1 to 100 nm) [10]. NMs and NPs have diverse physicochemical, optical,
conductive, and biological properties that can be adjusted. These distinguishing
characteristics are owing to their small size and vast surface area. NMs display quantum
qualities and unique features due to their huge surface area-to-volume ratio [11]. The use
of NMs and nanostructures as DDSs has sparked interest in nanomedicine [12]. DDS
can deliver medications to specific tissues in a regulated manner. In these nanocarriers,
medications can be chemically conjugated or physically enclosed [13]. Because of their
nanoscale size and vast surface area, NMs can easily permeate cells and interact with
biomolecules. The use of NT in drug delivery can increase absorption, bioavailability,
and stability while addressing the drawbacks of standard DDSs.
7.2.2 Types of nanoparticles used in gastric cancer treatment
In order to promote human health, NPs are increasingly being used in medical
research. Using nanosize materials like biocompatible NPs [14] and nanorobots [15]
for various applications, such as diagnosis, delivery, sensory, or actuation purposes
in a living entity, nanomedicine uses NT to prevent and treat various diseases [16].
Today, the different metallic NMs viz., old, iron, and others, are used for
treatment of GC. Drugs with very low solubility have a number of biopharmaceutical delivery problems, including limited bioaccess after oral intake, decreased ability
to diffuse into the outer membrane, a higher dosage needed for intravenous
administration, and unfavourable side effects occurring before the conventionally
formulated vaccination process.
7.2.3 Targeted drug delivery to gastric cancer cells
Delivery systems have seen tremendous progress in transporting curative agents or
bio-active chemicals to their target site to heal different diseases [17]. There have
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Nanobiotechnology and Artificial Intelligence in Gastrointestinal Diseases
been many successful DDSs in recent years. However, some obstacles must be
addressed, and novel technology must be created to ensure successful drug delivery
to its targeted and specific location [9]. The standard and simple drug delivery
pattern is not fully functioned to remedy GC cells. The target drug delivery is
considered a boon for GC cell diagnosis. As a result, nano-based DDSs are currently
being researched to support the enhanced DDS. Only a handful of NP-based
therapies have been approved for clinical use [18].
7.3 Nanoparticles for imaging and diagnosis
Diagnostic imaging refers to numerous procedures for in-depth study of the body to
determine the causes of sickness or damage and confirm a diagnosis. Developing
unique detection techniques helps early cure of different diseases [19]. The pressing
need for early disease identification and diagnosis drives the improvement of
imaging techniques and contrast agents. Current problems include quick and
comprehensive imaging of tissue microstructures and lesion characterization, which
could be accomplished by developing nontoxic contrast agents with longer circulation duration [20]. NPs-based technology opens a new window for the curing of
diseases. This is made possible via NP-based technology [21]. The novel NP-based
contrast agents working in most common biomedical imaging modalities and
fluorescence imaging are considered essential tools. These traditional tools and
techniques like magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computerized tomography
(CT), positron emission tomography (PET) and single-photon emission computed
tomography (SPECT) are helpful for detection [22].
7.3.1 Nanoparticles in gastric cancer imaging
The imaging of GC also uses nano-based techniques. Traditional imaging techniques, such as MRI, CT, PET, SPECT, and PET-CT, are frequently utilized in
clinical practise for GC detection and diagnosis. Contrast agents, on the other hand,
are constrained to a single imaging modality, a rapid clearance, and other
unfavourable side effects, as well as poorly tailored biodistribution. The different
NPs with built-in characteristics or functional modifications provide insight into the
creation of new, more effective imaging techniques for the detection of stomach
cancer. The same advantages apply to all of them: real-time imaging, targeted
accumulation in tumors and local metastases, improved tumor-background ratio,
excellent sensitivity, and high resolution. Biomarkers were employed in the instance
of GC tissue to create new NPs. Transmembrane receptors called integrins are
involved in cellular interactions with the extracellular matrix. On the surface of
several cancer cells, particularly stomach cancer, and activated endothelial cells of
tumorneovasculature, αvβ3 integrin is overexpressed. In contrast, it expresses itself
at a remarkably low level in healthy cells [23].
7.3.2 Contrast agents and theranostic nanoparticles
Recently, there has been increased interest in integrating contrast and therapy.
Theranostic medicine is a novel discipline of medicine that incorporates diagnostic
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