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- •How to Use this Book
- •Contents
- •Contributors
- •Objectives
- •US Management
- •Ultrasound Management Goals
- •Quality Improvement
- •Clinical Protocols
- •Information Management
- •Ultrasound Strategy
- •Situational Awareness
- •Creating a US Network with Key System Personnel
- •Timing
- •New Frontiers
- •Pitfalls
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Introduction
- •Leadership
- •Ultrasound Equipment
- •US Training
- •Who Else Is Using Ultrasound?
- •The Ultrasound Director Job
- •Extramural Involvement
- •Compensation
- •System Wide POC US Director
- •Medico-Legal Issues
- •Defensive Planning
- •Key Recommendation
- •Relevant Literature
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Introduction
- •Job Search
- •Peak Value
- •Contract Considerations
- •Negotiation
- •Discussion
- •Pitfalls
- •Key Recommendations
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Introduction
- •The Presentation
- •Programming
- •Capture Your Data
- •Synergy
- •Pitfalls
- •Key Recommendations
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Introduction
- •Pre-course Materials
- •Ultrasound Courses
- •Course Setting
- •Supplemental Education
- •Determining Competency
- •Pitfalls
- •Key Recommendations
- •References
- •Learning Objectives
- •Introduction
- •Deliberate Practice
- •Educational Goals
- •Blended Learning
- •Web-Based Instruction
- •Pitfalls
- •Key Recommendations
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Introduction
- •Main Ideas
- •Curriculum Development
- •General Needs Assessment
- •Targeted Needs Assessment
- •Basic Competencies
- •Advanced Competencies
- •Educational Strategies
- •Implementation
- •Ultrasound Champion
- •Funding Considerations
- •Discussion
- •Pitfalls
- •Key Recommendations
- •Medical School Year 2
- •Medical School Year 3
- •Medical School Year 4
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Introduction
- •Curriculum
- •Faculty
- •Equipment
- •Competency Assessment
- •Other Residency Experiences
- •EUS Fellowship Guidelines/Core Content
- •Education Skills
- •Quality Assurance
- •Leadership
- •Equipment
- •Key Recommendations
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Introduction
- •Networking
- •Coding/Billing/Reimbursement
- •Budget/Economics
- •Credentialing/Privileges
- •Point-of-Care Ultrasound Program Accreditation
- •Problem Solving
- •Politics/Institutional POC US/Negotiation Skills
- •Discussion
- •Pitfalls
- •Key Recommendations
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Introduction
- •Initial Education
- •Trainee-Based Pathway
- •Practice-Based Pathway
- •Experiential Component
- •Credentialing
- •Supervision
- •Independently Practicing APPs
- •Non-independently Practicing APPs
- •Key Recommendations
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Introduction
- •Simulator Considerations
- •Commercially Available Simulators
- •Partial-Task Trainers: Phantoms
- •Anatomic Simulator: Live Model
- •Anatomic Simulator: Phantom
- •Anatomic Simulator: Computer-Based
- •Discussion
- •Pitfalls
- •Key Recommendations
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Machine Selection
- •Compact Cart-Based Ultrasound Machines
- •Hand-Carried Ultrasound Machines
- •Pocket-Carried Ultrasound Machines
- •Pole or Arm Mounted US Machines
- •Probe Selection
- •Equipment Purchase Considerations
- •Service
- •Image Quality
- •Machine Companies
- •Summary
- •Pitfalls
- •Key Recommendations
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Introduction
- •US Machine Cleaning
- •Preventive Maintenance
- •Basic Toolkit
- •VCRs/CD Recorders
- •Broken Control Surface Buttons
- •Ultrasound Cart Wheel Assemblies
- •Wiring Check
- •Customizing
- •Essential Supplies
- •Power Cords
- •Small Parts Transducer Holder
- •US Carts Are Not Sacrosanct!
- •Color Code Your Transducers
- •US Cart Supplies
- •Industrial Velcro
- •Label Maker
- •Midline Markers
- •Artwork
- •Anthropomorphize Your Fleet
- •Signage
- •Ultrasound Supply Storage Cabinets
- •Poster Printer
- •Service Options
- •Original Equipment Manufacturer
- •Biomed Engineering
- •Equipment Insurance
- •Multi-Vendor Service Providers
- •Breakdowns
- •Longevity
- •Pitfalls
- •Key Recommendations
- •Objectives
- •Introduction
- •Machine Accessories
- •Barcode Reader
- •USB Accessories
- •Probe Accessories
- •Endocavitary Probe Covers
- •Sterile Probe Covers
- •Ultrasound Gel
- •Ultrasound Gel Warmers
- •Procedural Guidance Accessories
- •Echogenic Needles
- •Control Syringes
- •Needle Guides
- •Peripheral Intravenous Catheters
- •Pitfalls
- •Key Recommendations
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Introduction
- •Bioeffects
- •System Power
- •Thermal Index
- •Thermal Bioeffects
- •Mechanical Index
- •Nonthermal Bioeffects
- •Prudent Use
- •Ultrasound Safety Education
- •Infection Control
- •Noncritical Devices (Noninvasive Probes)
- •Semi-Critical Devices
- •Critical Devices
- •Other Ultrasound Machine Elements
- •Summary
- •Pitfalls
- •Key Recommendations
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Introduction
- •Terminology
- •Pitfalls
- •Key Recommendations
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Introduction
- •Infrastructure
- •Middleware
- •Data Entry
- •Report Generation
- •Image Review/Quality Improvement
- •Education/Credentialing
- •Order Entry/Billing
- •Middleware Vendors
- •Pitfalls
- •Key Recommendations
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Introduction
- •Media Acquisition Options
- •Internal Image Acquisition
- •External Image Acquisition
- •Image Format
- •Internet Cloud Storage
- •Video Editing Software
- •Ultrasound Education Creation
- •Pitfalls
- •Key Recommendations
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Introduction
- •Departmental Aspects
- •Interdepartmental Aspects
- •National Organizational Aspects
- •The Contrarian’s Viewpoint
- •Accreditation
- •Future Considerations
- •Conclusion
- •Pitfalls
- •Key Recommendations
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Introduction
- •Key Terms
- •Historical Background
- •Obtaining Point-of-Care Ultrasound Privileges (Step-by-Step)
- •You Were Denied Privileging, Now What?
- •Pitfalls
- •Key Points
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Introduction
- •What Is Accreditation?
- •Other Ultrasound Imaging Accreditation Organizations
- •Pitfalls
- •Key Recommendation
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Introduction
- •CPT Coding
- •Global vs. Professional vs. Technical
- •Facility Setting
- •Professional Component
- •Technical Component
- •Medicare Patients: Hospital Outpatient Prospective Payment System
- •Medicare Patients: Inpatient Versus Outpatient
- •RVUs
- •Machine Purchase
- •Hand-Held Ultrasound Devices
- •Limited vs. Complete Ultrasound
- •Diagnostic vs. Procedural Codes
- •Add-on Codes
- •Nonphysicians Performing Ultrasounds
- •RN/Medics Performing Ultrasound-Guided Procedures
- •Licensed Independent Practitioners
- •Insurance Payment Policies
- •Technical Billing
- •Core Emergency Ultrasound CPT Codes
- •Diagnostic POC US
- •Trauma Ultrasound 93308, 76705, 76604
- •Female Pelvic Ultrasound: Pregnant 76815, 76817; Nonpregnant 76857, 76830
- •Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm (AAA), Urinary Tract 76775, Screening AAA 76706, Bladder 76857
- •Cardiac 93308
- •Biliary, Bowel, Hemoperitoneum, Appendix 76705
- •Abdominal Ultrasound LCDs: L31572, L34572
- •Deep Venous Thrombosis (DVT) 93971
- •Soft Tissue/Musculoskeletal
- •Thoracic Ultrasound 76604
- •Ocular Ultrasound 76512
- •Ultrasound-Guided Procedures
- •Advanced Emergency Ultrasound Codes
- •Outpatient vs. Inpatient
- •Government ABCs
- •Medicare
- •MACs
- •Medical Necessity/ICD
- •Payment Edits
- •Multiple Procedure Payment Reduction (MPPR)
- •Billing Optimization
- •Conclusion
- •Exhibit 1
- •Emergency Ultrasound Coding Guide 2017
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Introduction
- •Ultrasound Management in Global Medicine: Key Concepts
- •Equipment
- •Maintenance
- •Program Implementation
- •Education Strategies
- •Politics: Funding, Billing, Infrastructure
- •Discussion
- •Pitfalls
- •Key Recommendations
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Introduction
- •Pediatric Abdominal Complaints
- •Pre-urethral (Bladder Size) Catheterization
- •Head Trauma
- •Musculoskeletal Complaints
- •FAST
- •Soft Tissue Infections
- •Pneumonia
- •Venous Access
- •Equipment
- •Managing Anxiety/Pain
- •Pitfalls
- •Key Recommendations
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Introduction
- •Ultrasound During Triage
- •Incorporating Ultrasound into Disaster Planning
- •Equipment
- •Conclusion
- •Key Recommendations
- •Objectives
- •Introduction
- •Trauma Evaluation
- •Cardiac Arrest
- •Telemedicine
- •Limitations
- •Conclusion
- •Key Recommendations
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Introduction
- •Commitment
- •Soliciting Department Chair/Director Support
- •Safety
- •Cost
- •Ultrasound Director Support
- •Following Guidelines
- •Conclusion
- •Pitfalls
- •Key Recommendations
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Applications
- •Education
- •Medical Knowledge
- •Pathways
- •Skills Acquisition
- •Program Infrastructure
- •Program Director
- •Research Protocol Implementation
- •Equipment
- •Data Management
- •Quality Assurance
- •Conclusion
- •Pitfalls
- •Key Recommendations
- •References
- •Objectives
- •Introduction
- •Needs Assessment
- •Practical Considerations
- •Pitfalls
- •Key Recommendations
- •References
- •ACEP US Guidelines
- •ACEP Emergency US Imaging Criteria Compendium

12 Ultrasound Equipment andPurchase
161
is not currently widespread. Probes on compact cart-based machines typically attach
to the ultrasound machine through a set of ports (Fig.12.26) that allow switching of
probes without physically changing the port. Laptop-sized machines usually require
the probe to be physically interchanged (Fig.12.27). Pocket-carried machines often
have a xed probe that cannot be changed, although recent models have combined
more than one probe type in a single transducer (Fig.12.28). Innovative wireless
probes have been developed by some companies, with control functions on the probe
itself to allow one-handed operation (Fig.12.29) or use of Bluetooth and wi to
transmit images to smartphones or tablets (Fig.12.30). All transducers have raised
color-marked lines or dots called “indicators” which correspond to a marker on the
screen for assisting operators’ spatial orientation. Probes generally cost between
$7000 and $12,000 USD each, with warranties lasting 1–5years [5]. Vendors manufacture their probes differently, inuencing their durability and degradation time. It
is worth asking companies about their manner of probe construction.
Fig. 12.23 Phased array
transducer
Fig. 12.24 Endocavity
transducer

162
cardiac imaging
• Exclusively for
• Best for
• Best for vascular,
• Potential POC US
transvaginal
imaging
• May be used for
MSK, ocular
applications
• Essential for the
applications
in cardiac resuscitation
intra-oral
peritonsillar abscess
evaluation
most common
procedures
(peripheral IV,
suprasternal notch
• May be used for
transabdominal OB,
central access)
• May be used for
aortic arch
assessment
bowel evaluations in
thin patients
• Variations exist that
R. Liu et al.
role in current
Probes are expensive
beyond normal current
• POC US training
• Requires training
consideration of
relatively specialist
• Needs specic
• Applications are
offer very high-
frequency imaging
typically does not
offer better
ergonomic form
factors like the
“hockey stick” probe
• New technologies
extend past 4cm
resuscitation care
• Unclear denitive
operator use/
prociency in the
clinical
environment
OB imaging
Phased array Curvilinear Linear Endocavitary TEE
Pros • Best for cardiac scanning Best for abdominal and
Table 12.2 Summary of the advantages of disadvantages of different probe types
May be used for
thoracic and MSK
imaging, particularly
of deeper structures
footprint
• Lower frequency with small
imaging for echo
• Contains ideal tissue harmonic
abdominal imaging too
• May be used for thoracic &
• May be used for transcranial
especially for eFAST
exams, rone to being
dropped or
• Due to heavy use,
• Larger footprint • Depth of eld
and image quality may degrade
non-cardiac presets
applications
obese patients
• Depending on vendor, crystals
• Image quality may be limited in
Limits • Image quality may be limited in
mistreated
relatively quickly
• Not good for supercial imaging

12 Ultrasound Equipment andPurchase
Fig. 12.25 TEE probe
Fig. 12.26 Probe ports
163
Fig. 12.27 Probe connection
into laptop

164
Fig. 12.28 Plug in probe—
pocket size
Fig. 12.29 Freestyle hand
image
R. Liu et al.
Fig. 12.30 Smart phone
controlled portable ultrasound

12 Ultrasound Equipment andPurchase
165
Linear transducers (also known as straight linear array probes) have a at, oblong
rectangular surface (Fig.12.22). They are sometimes referred to as “vascular” probes
as they are often used for this indication, although they have more diverse applications.
The crystals are aligned parallel to each other in a straight line, and therefore produce
sound waves that travel in straight lines. The eld of the image on screen is rectangular,
like a box. This probe has a high-frequency range (5–13MHz) and so provides good
resolution of images but less penetration into body cavities. Therefore, it is ideal for
imaging supercial structures involved in soft tissue, musculoskeletal, vascular, pleural, and ocular imaging. Of note, it is commonly used for procedural guidance.
Variations of the linear probe exist, like the “hockey stick” probe (Fig.12.31)
that allows the probe to be gripped like a pencil. This can afford a more stable grip
when performing procedures or applications that need ne motor action. In addition, since 2016 vendors have developed ultrasound high-frequency probes with
capabilities up to 70MHz (e.g., Sonosite Vevo MD transducers) that offer advancements in neonatal, vascular, and MSK examinations. The advantage of this in the
point-of-care community has yet to be seen.
Curvilinear probes (Fig.12.21) (also called convex) have crystals arranged along
a large curved surface and produce sound waves traveling in a fan-shaped arcing
beam. This allows a eld of view that is wider than the probe’s footprint, so images
appear narrower on top of the screen and wider at the bottom. This conguration is
often referred to as a “sector” probe, which also refers to phased array and endocavitary probes, as distinct from linear. The frequency of a curvilinear abdominal
probe typically ranges between 2 and 6MHz, allowing sound waves to penetrate
Fig. 12.31 Hockey stick
probe

166
R. Liu et al.
deeper into the body but providing less resolution. Curvilinear probes are commonly used to ultrasound the abdominal cavity, perform transabdominal fetal evaluation, evaluate the pelvis and bladder transabdominally, assess the pleural cavity,
and perform certain musculoskeletal procedures (e.g. intra-articular shoulder injection and reduction, lumbar puncture). Highly curved small curvilinear probes with
mid-level frequencies (4–8MHz) are available for pediatric scanning (Fig.12.32—
small short radius mid-frequency range curvilinear probe).
Phased array probes have a at, square surface shape and its crystals are grouped
closely together in a point (Fig.12.23). Sound waves originate from this single point and
spread outward, creating a triangular or sector image. The probe frequency is between 2
and 8MHz. As the footprint is smaller and atter than the curvilinear probe, it is easier
to maneuver between rib spaces and use in smaller areas. It is ideal for cardiac imaging
as well as abdominal evaluation of thinner, smaller patients. Users should be aware that
when selecting the phased array probe the machine may default to a cardiology convention, which may reverse the indicator-to-screen orientation from other indications.
The endocavitary probe (Fig.12.24) has a small circular curved face that is narrower than the curvilinear probe and produces higher frequencies (8–13MHz).
Because of its small size, it is ideal for placement into smaller cavities (intra-oral or
intra-vaginal) for evaluation of peritonsillar abscess and most commonly, for
OBGYN applications [4]. It can also be used for central line placement and assessment of the aortic arch at the sternal notch.
A transesophageal probe (Fig.12.25) has the ultrasound face at the end of a
exible apparatus designed to be inserted and manipulated to visualize the heart
adjacent to the esophagus. These probes are uncommonly used in the emergency
department setting, but have been adopted by intensivists particularly in Europe.
The transesophageal probe is more expensive than other probes (typically about
$20–30K), but provides unparalleled visualization of the heart.
In addition to TEE probes, there are many other probes that may be useful in
POC imaging, such as biplanar probes and 3D probes (Fig.12.33—biplanar probe,
and Fig.12.34 xplane 3D probe).
Fig. 12.32 Middle frequency
curvilinear probe

12 Ultrasound Equipment andPurchase
Fig. 12.33 Biplane probe
167
Fig. 12.34 Xplane 3D probe

168
In an ideal situation, a clinical ultrasonographer will have access to all available
types of probes. However, due to budgetary constraints it may be necessary to prioritize
which probes are obtained. Transabdominal imaging can often be reasonably performed with a phased array probe. However, cardiac imaging is difcult with a large
footprint curvilinear probe. Thus when programs are trying to economize, they may
choose a phased array or microconvex probe instead of both a phased array and large
footprint curvilinear. This will work, although the quality of abdominal imaging will be
improved if a high quality curvilinear probe is available. A linear probe is required for
vascular, ocular, and musculoskeletal imaging, and an endocavitary probe is required
for transvaginal imaging. Most point-of-care ultrasound machines will require at least
phased array and linear probes, with probe selection tailored to the uses intended.
R. Liu et al.
Equipment Purchase Considerations
The uniqueness of clinical ultrasonography is that it brings imaging to the patient bedside and so the practice environment is frequently changing. An operator can work in a
hospital, detach a machine, and bring it to an international site. Or, the provider may
choose to work primarily with smaller machines for personal use at multiple sites.
Whether in a hospital, the back of an ambulance, helicopter, cruise ship, campsite, on
top of a mountain, or in space, all environments of practice can be harsh. Machines need
adaptability to keep pace with growing demands while withstanding the elements.
Portability andDurability
Sizing of machines have been addressed above, and it would benet the buyer to
physically measure the dimensions of patient care space and docking areas to ensure
a machine ts.
While all buyers wish their units to be easily maneuverable and indestructible
these characteristics will vary by manufacturer and model. Cart systems and handcarried machines mounted on carts should be lightweight and easily turned. Wheels
and wheel casings need to consist of durable material and perform multidirectional
functions to enable movement. The composition of machine housing and articulating
joints (e.g., height adjustment levers, monitor arms) need to be rugged, as machines
run into walls during transport and are splashed by corrosive substances. Laptop-sized
and smaller machines should have casing and screens that withstand being dropped.
Similarly, crystals within transducer footprints and seams in the probe casing need
to be resilient if dropped accidentally. Cable management solutions that prevent cord
entanglement and trampling are essential for transducer protection. If probe cables
are run over by the machine, cables should withstand wear and tear to protect the
wires inside. Wireless transducers are a way to combat this issue, but lead to concerns
of probe misplacement or theft. Retractable cords have been proposed, but sterility,
cleaning, and functionality have been problematic and to our knowledge there are no
commercially available retractable probe connectors. Some companies have
employed power stations to prevent power cord trampling, alleviate ergonomic issues

12 Ultrasound Equipment andPurchase
associated with machine charging, and avoid handling of dirty cords that have dragged
on the oor. Machines should contain storage options for transducers, gel, cleaning
solution, and accessories to provide further protection. All surfaces associated with a
machine have to be easily accessible and cleaned with readily available solutions.
169
Ease ofUse
In critical care situations, quick machine boot-up time is a must and this can be
facilitated by a power sleep mode. Comparing “cold boot” and “awakening from
sleep” times should be done prior to purchase. Battery life is also an important feature, as situations arise where usage for 2–3h or more is needed away from a wall
socket. Quick battery charge time or ability for battery replacement during transport
is ideal. Critical features (e.g., power, gain, depth, measure, freeze, save image,
change transducer) must be easy to nd and intuitively located. Keyboard and knobs
should be backlit to accommodate imaging in darkened rooms. The machine’s features and controls need appeal to users of differing skill levels, easily upgraded
when new software and advanced packages are desired. Machines using touchscreen keypads need to be responsive, without lag or oversensitivity.
Integration of particular equipment into current or future department workow
should be considered. Some manufacturers and models will integrate better with particular electronic health records and image management systems (including both “middleware” or a more traditional picture archival and communication service—PACS).
It may be very helpful to discuss machine integration with someone who uses a similar
workow, and vendors are often able to provide prospective customers with these references. Patient demographics should be available for selection from a work list and
convenient to enter manually if needed. Some companies have enabled automatic transfer of patient information to their machines using a patient identity band barcode reader.
The ability to select a patient without manual entry facilitates correct documentation for
electronic medical record transfer and quality assurance [3]. Likewise, “ending an
exam” facilitates image storage and the ability to create a new patient. Most systems
will do this automatically, but a cumbersome process will hinder workow. The prospective buyer should think carefully about how images will be stored and transferred
from the machine and if possible discuss with someone using a similar conguration.
Some ultrasound companies are now interfacing with middleware documentation companies to allow the completion of interpretation worksheets on their machines. This
enhances operator compliance with documentation and speeds workow.
Image Storage andTransfer
Denitive image archival is required for ultrasound reimbursement, and effective image
management can enhance quality assurance and communication with other practitioners. While thermal printing, VHS cassette, and even DVD recording of images are still
performed in some places, current equipment is designed for digital transfer of still and
moving images or “cineloops,” which are preferred by many users. Export of images in

170
general formats such as jpeg or mp4 is typically available from the machine if desired,
but most modern units will utilize the DICOM image storage format (a standard format
that stands for Digital Imaging and Communication in Medicine). If manual export is
anticipated, efcient export will prevent long download times and le corruption.
Contemporary le storage options (USB drives, SD cards, wireless or cloud transfer)
should be available. Wireless transfer of images is much more suited to the point-of-care
environment if it can be congured. While most machines can have an external wi-
adapter added, ideally this should be housed internally to ensure durability and functionality. Machines using plug-in ethernet connectors need to secure them to protect against
accidental dislodgement when attaching or removing ethernet cables. Ethernet standards
offered on the machines need to follow hospital security protocols, and it is benecial to
involve hospital IT during purchase discussions to ensure a machine is compatible with
the hospital intranet system. Like computers, internal components and storage should be
upgradeable and replaceable if needed (See Chap. 17 – Workow and Middleware).
R. Liu et al.
Service
Warranties or service contracts should be carefully reviewed prior to purchase, as
they are essential for the maintenance of machines and probes. While some manufacturers include a full 5-year warranty as part of the initial purchase price, most
vendors will offer a 1-year warranty with a service plan to be purchased after the
initial warranty period. Service plans should typically be budgeted at about 10% of
the machine cost per year, and spending more money for higher service packages is
often a wise decision [5]. They should include replacement of broken parts and loan
of either parts or full machine support during repair, ideally with pickup and shipping included. The warranty coverage of probes should be explicitly addressed, as
these are often the most vulnerable parts of the machine. Warranties may not cover
a probe repair or replacement if there is evidence of “excessive wear and tear”
(something that unfortunately may be difcult to avoid in the point-of-care setting),
while other companies will do this once but not subsequently.
Company replies to service calls need to be prompt, since delay of service could
impact patient care. As many clinical ultrasonography practitioners are in emergency settings that are open 24/7, repair services need to be available past typical
business hours. It is worth questioning representatives on service technicians’
response times, methods of communication, location, and hours of service. This
should ideally be veried by speaking with someone in your area who is working
with similar equipment. The most convenient plans involve technicians investigating defects at the hospital site itself. System software upgrades should be quickly
performed via USB drive, CD, or remote internet connection without requiring full
hardware replacement (See Chap. 14 – Equipment Maintenance).
Image Quality
Image quality overall has improved markedly over the last decade in the point-ofcare market. Having good image quality across the spectrum of patients (thin and
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