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References
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India, 1, 96–97.
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Mohan Basu.
14. Misra, B. (2004). Ashwagandha-Bhavprakash Nigantu (Indian Materia Medica) Varanasi.
Chaukhambha Bharti Academy, 393–394.
15. Sharma, P. (1999). Ashwagandha. Dravyaguna Vijana, Chaukhambha Viashwabharti,
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16. Abbas, S., Bhalla, M., & Singh, N. (2005). A clinical study of Organic Ashwagandha in some
cases of uterine tumors (broids) and dermatobrosarcoma. Paper presented at the Proc.
workshop on essential medicines, adverse drug reactions and therapeutic drug monitoring.
17. Abraham, A., Kirson, I., Glotter, E., & Lavie, D. (1968). A chemotaxonomic study of Withania
somnifera (L.) dun. Phytochemistry, 7(6), 957–962.
18. Singh, P., Guleri, R., Singh, V., Kaur, G., Kataria, H., Singh, B., etal. (2015). Biotechnological
interventions in Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal. Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering
Reviews, 31(1–2), 1–20.
19. Singh, N., & Gilca, M. (2010). Herbal medicine: Science embraces tradition: A new insight
into ancient. Lambert Academic Pub.
20. Bhattacharya, S.K., Satyan, K. S., & Ghosal, S. (1997). Antioxidant activity of glycowithanolides from Withania somnifera. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology, 35(3), 236–239.
21. Jayaprakasam, B., Zhang, Y., Seeram, N. P., & Nair, M. G. (2003). Growth inhibition of
human tumor cell lines by withanolides from Withania somnifera leaves. Life Sciences, 74(1),
125–132.
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22. Singh, N., Singh, S., Nath, R., Singh, D., Gupta, M., Kohli, R., et al. (1986). Prevention
of urethane- induced lung adenomas by Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal in albino mice.
International Journal of Crude Drug Research, 24(2), 90–100.
23. Ichikawa, H., Takada, Y., Shishodia, S., Jayaprakasam, B., Nair, M. G., & Aggarwal,
B.B. (2006). Withanolides potentiate apoptosis, inhibit invasion, and abolish osteoclastogenesis through suppression of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activation and NF-κB–regulated gene
expression. Molecular Cancer Therapeutics, 5(6), 1434–1445.
24. Girish, K., Machiah, K., Ushanandini, S., Harish Kumar, K., Nagaraju, S., Govindappa, M.,
etal. (2006). Antimicrobial properties of a non-toxic glycoprotein (WSG) from Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha). Journal of Basic Microbiology, 46(5), 365–374.
25. Lizano, S., Domont, G., & Perales, J. (2003). Natural phospholipase A2 myotoxin inhibitor
proteins from snakes, mammals and plants. Toxicon, 42(8), 963–977.
26. Bhattacharya, A., Ramanathan, M., Ghosal, S., & Bhattacharya, S. (2000). Effect of Withania
somnifera glycowithanolides on iron-induced hepatotoxicity in rats. Phytotherapy Research:
An International Journal Devoted to Pharmacological and Toxicological Evaluation of
Natural Product Derivatives, 14(7), 568–570.
27. Hemalatha, S., Wahi, A., Singh, P., & Chansouria, J. (2006). Hypolipidemic activity of aqueous
extract of Withania coagulans Dunal in albino rats. Phytotherapy Research: An International
Journal Devoted to Pharmacological and Toxicological Evaluation of Natural Product
Derivatives, 20(7), 614–617.
28. Andallu, B., & Radhika, B. (2000). Hypoglycemic, diuretic and hypocholesterolemic effect
of winter cherry (Withania somnifera, Dunal) root. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology,
38(6), 607–609.
29. Owais, M., Sharad, K., Shehbaz, A., & Saleemuddin, M. (2005). Antibacterial efcacy of
Withania somnifera (ashwagandha) an indigenous medicinal plant against experimental
murine salmonellosis. Phytomedicine, 12(3), 229–235.
30. Arora, S., Dhillon, S., Rani, G., & Nagpal, A. (2004). The invitro antibacterial/synergistic
activities of Withania somnifera extracts. Fitoterapia, 75(3–4), 385–388.
31. Singh, A., Naidu, P. S., Gupta, S., & Kulkarni, S.K. (2002). Effect of natural and synthetic
antioxidants in a mouse model of chronic fatigue syndrome. Journal of Medicinal Food, 5(4),
211–220.
32. Choudhary, M.I., Nawaz, S.A., Lodhi, M.A., Ghayur, M.N., Jalil, S., Riaz, N., etal. (2005).
Withanolides, a new class of natural cholinesterase inhibitors with calcium antagonistic properties. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 334(1), 276–287.
33. Schliebs, R., Liebmann, A., Bhattacharya, S.K., Kumar, A., Ghosal, S., & Bigl, V. (1997).
Systemic administration of dened extracts from Withania somnifera (Indian Ginseng) and
Shilajit differentially affects cholinergic but not glutamatergic and GABAergic markers in rat
brain. Neurochemistry International, 30(2), 181–190.
34. Glotter, E. (1991). Withanolides and related ergostane-type steroids. Natural Product Reports,
8(4), 415–440.
35. Kuboyama, T., Tohda, C., & Komatsu, K. (2005). Neuritic regeneration and synaptic reconstruction induced by withanolide a. British Journal of Pharmacology, 144(7), 961–971.
36. Kuboyama, T., Tohda, C., & Komatsu, K. (2006). Withanoside IV and its active metabolite, sominone, attenuate Aβ (25–35)-induced neurodegeneration. European Journal of
Neuroscience, 23(6), 1417–1426.
37. Dinh, C.H., Szabo, A., Camer, D., Yu, Y., Wang, H., & Huang, X.-F. (2015). Bardoxolone
methyl prevents fat deposition and inammation in the visceral fat of mice fed a high-fat diet.
Chemico-Biological Interactions, 229, 1–8.
38. Zahiruddin, S., Basist, P., Parveen, A., Parveen, R., Khan, W., & Ahmad, S. (2020). Ashwagandha
in brain disorders: A review of recent developments. Journal of Ethnopharmacology,
257, 112876.
39. Ahmed, R., Khan, N.A., Waseem, M., & Khan, Z.J. (2017). Holistic approach in the management of depression: A review. Journal of Integrated Community Health, 6, 10–14.
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40. Bhattacharya, S., Bhattacharya, A., Sairam, K., & Ghosal, S. (2000). Anxiolytic-antidepressant
activity of Withania somnifera glycowithanolides: An experimental study. Phytomedicine,
7(6), 463–469.
41. MK, M.J., Prathima, C., Huralikuppi, J., Suresha, R., & Murali, D. (2012). Anti-depressant
effects of Withania somnifera fat (Ashwagandha ghrutha) extract in experimental mice.
International Journal of Pharma and Bio Sciences, 3(1), 33–42.
42. Brown, R.H., & Al-Chalabi, A. (2017). Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. New England Journal
of Medicine, 377(2), 162–172.
43. Dutta, K., Patel, P., & Julien, J.-P. (2018). Protective effects of Withania somnifera extract
in SOD1G93A mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Experimental Neurology, 309,
193–204.
44. Pandey, A., Bani, S., Dutt, P., Satti, N.K., Suri, K.A., & Qazi, G.N. (2018). Multifunctional
neuroprotective effect of Withanone, a compound from Withania somnifera roots in alleviating
cognitive dysfunction. Cytokine, 102, 211–221.
45. Grover, A., Shandilya, A., Agrawal, V., Bisaria, V.S., & Sundar, D. (2012). Computational evidence to inhibition of human acetyl cholinesterase by withanolide a for Alzheimer treatment.
Journal of Biomolecular Structure and Dynamics, 29(4), 651–662.
46. Sehgal, N., Gupta, A., Valli, R.K., Joshi, S.D., Mills, J.T., Hamel, E., etal. (2012). Withania
somnifera reverses Alzheimer’s disease pathology by enhancing low-density lipoprotein
receptor-related protein in liver. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109(9),
3510–3515.
47. Bhatnagar, M., Goel, I., Roy, T., Shukla, S.D., & Khurana, S. (2017). Complete Comparison
Display (CCD) evaluation of ethanol extracts of Centella asiatica and Withania somnifera
shows that they can non-synergistically ameliorate biochemical and behavioural damages in
MPTP induced Parkinson’s model of mice. PLoS One, 12(5), e0177254.
48. Manjunath, M. (2015). Standardized extract of Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha) markedly offsets rotenone-induced locomotor decits, oxidative impairments and neurotoxicity in
Drosophila melanogaster. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 52, 1971–1981.
49. RajaSankar, S., Manivasagam, T., & Surendran, S. (2009). Ashwagandha leaf extract: A potential agent in treating oxidative damage and physiological abnormalities seen in a mouse model
of Parkinson’s disease. Neuroscience Letters, 454(1), 11–15.
50. Wei, Y.-Y., Lin, W.-F., Zhang, T.-H., Tang, Y.-X., Wang, J.-J., & Zhong, M.-F. (2018).
Effectiveness of traditional Chinese medicineas as an adjunct therapy for refractory schizophrenia: A systematic review and meta analysis. Scientic Reports, 8(1), 6230.
51. Naidu, P.S., Singh, A., & Kulkarni, S.K. (2003). Effect of Withania somnifera root extract
on haloperidol-induced orofacial dyskinesia: Possible mechanisms of action. Journal of
Medicinal Food, 6(2), 107–114.
52. Rasool, M., Malik, A., Qureshi, M.S., Manan, A., Pushparaj, P.N., Asif, M., etal. (2014).
Recent updates in the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders using natural compounds.
Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2014.
53. Veeresh, B., Pratyusha, G., Mallika, S., & Sudarshini, K. (2016). Research Article Withania
somnifera ameliorates sodium valproate induced austism in BALB/c mice: Behavioral and
biochemical evidences.
54. Everitt, B.J., & Robbins, T.W. (2016). Drug addiction: Updating actions to habits to compulsions ten years on. Annual Review of Psychology, 67, 23–50.
55. Koob, G.F., & Volkow, N.D. (2016). Neurobiology of addiction: A neurocircuitry analysis.
The Lancet Psychiatry, 3(8), 760–773.
56. Bassareo, V., Talani, G., Frau, R., Porru, S., Rosas, M., Kasture, S.B., etal. (2019). Inhibition
of morphine-and ethanol-mediated stimulation of mesolimbic dopamine neurons by Withania
somnifera. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 13, 545.
57. Dumore, N.G., Umekar, M.J., Taksande, B.G., Aglawe, M.M., & Kotagale, N.R. (2019).
Effects of Withania somnifera nicotine induced conditioned place preference in mice.
Pharmacognosy Journal, 11(1).
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Chapter 7
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Cowhage
SanaAslam, AyeshaRaq, MatloobAhmad, SyedAliRazaNaqvi,
andArwaA.AL-Huqail
7.1 Introduction
Family Fabaceae
Subfamily Faboideae
Scientic name Mucuna pruriens
English/Common Name Velvet Beans
7.2 Plant Description
There are roughly one hundred and fty types of annual and perennial leguminous
plants in this genus of Mucuna, which belongs to the Fabaceae family, subfamily
Faboideae. Mucuna pruriens is ubiquitous in tropical and sub-tropical areas and is
one of the most commonly used wild legumes. Mucuna beans (also called as Velvet
beans), like other typical pulses, have been proven to be high in protein and carbohydrates, as well as a good supply of macro- and microelements. The ripe beans and
S. Aslam
Department of Chemistry, Government College Women University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
A. Raq · M. Ahmad (
Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
e-mail: matloob.ahmad@gcuf.edu.pk
A. A. AL-Huqail
Department of Biology, College of Science, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University,
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023
M. Zia-Ul-Haq etal. (eds.), Essentials of Medicinal and Aromatic Crops,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-35403-8_7
*) · S. A. R. Naqvi
145
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the green pods are both cooked and eaten [1]. It is thought to be an effective source
of dietary proteins when compared to other pulses such as rice bean, lima bean, rice
and soybean [2–4]. As a result, it is recognized as an excellent dietary source.
It’s a twining, climbing, annual herbaceous leguminous plant with long, slender
twigs as well as opposing trifoliolate, lanceolate leaets, 15-30 cm in length.
Generally, ovate, asymmetric or rhomboid oval-shaped leaets are present, which
are uneven at ground level. It bears white to dark purple blooms that grow in two or
three racemes and swing in bunches. The pod, which is thick and leathery, is the
plant’s fruit. It is covered in long, stiff, reddish-orange hairs that can be easily
removed but can also cause irritation in harvesters. The effect of touching the seedpod hairs is referred to as “pruriens” (from Latin, “itching feeling”). Mucuna bean
seeds (4–6in a pod) are black curved, nocturnally uneven, bloated, heavily covered
with irritating bristles, oval (ranging from 6 to 12mm long), and have a funicular
hilum [5, 6].
When the plant is immature, it is totally enclosed by soft, uffy hairs; however,
as it matures, it becomes virtually hairless [7]. Trifoliate with alternating or spiralling leaves and a gray-silky underside; stalks are silky and long.
S. Aslam etal.
7.3 Agronomy ofPlant
7.3.1 Soil Condition
The plant may ourish in a wide range of soils, although it gives preference to gritty
silt soils with adequate ow and a pH of 5.50–7.50. With winter temperatures as low
as 15°C and summer temperatures as high as 38°C, it ourishes in a sub-tropical
to tropical climate.
7.3.2 Climatic Conditions
Velvet beans thrive in locations with extended growing seasons and favour hot,
humid climates with 650–2500mm of annual rainfall. It can withstand prolonged
periods of drought, especially if planted during the growing season. As a result,
velvet bean growth is becoming more popular in areas receiving 10–20inches of
rain per year (e.g., the natural regions of Zimbabwe). It will continue to rise until
frozen or deep soil moisture runs out in the dry season. Its seeds reach maturity in
the months of May and June [8].
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7.4 Land Preparation
The crop does not need extensive land preparation because of its big seeds. In CA
systems, whether utilizing human or mechanical operations, little soil disturbance is
desired [8].
7.5 Planting
Seed is spread at an amount of 35–40kms per hectare in one crop at the start of the
period of rainfall, with inter-row spacing of 0.9–1m and within row spacing of
30–40cm. In semi-arid circumstances, a reduced seed rate (wider spacing) is recommended to avoid moisture competition. Mucuna seeds are huge; thus, they
should be planted 3–7 cm deep [8]. Despite the lack of a designated cultivar of
Mucuna, locally accessible seeds have acceptable viability and germination rates
[9]. For growth, the plant needs assistance. By providing assistance, it results in a
25% rise in production and a 25% decline in insect infestation. Flowering usually
starts 45–50days after seeding [10].
7.6 Manuring
The treatment of 50kg P2O5 ha−1greatly boosted velvet bean growth, production of
components, and seed [11]. M. pruriens produced the most organic matter (approximately 7.3tha−1) with phosphorous pentaoxide treatment [12]. It was shown in a
previous study that when nitrogen and phosphorus were not present in the entire
treatment of fertilizer in Mucuna, organic matter output was reduced by 69% (nitrogen) and 33% (phosphorus) on average [13]. Instead, 250–300kg of compound
fertilizer can be used (preferably in a ratio of 7:14:7 of nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium, respectively).
7.7 Pest andDiseases
Farmers should weed-free the land as soon as weeds develop to maintain the crop.
This will also help keep pests at bay. The velvet bean is widely renowned for its
resistance to pests and diseases. Leaf-eating caterpillars, on the other hand, have
been reported to be completely destructive. Farmers should seek advice on reducing
infection outbursts or insect damage while applying herbicides and follow crop
chemical compatibility advice [8].
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Velvet bean is among the best crops for recovering land soiled with wild owers
such as Saccharum spontaneum, Cynodondactylon, Imperata cylindrica, and
Cyperus species, among others [14]. To prevent Fusarium oxysporum infection, it is
advised to be used in rotation with cotton in Brazil. It can also efciently reduce
nematode infestations caused by Meloidogyne incognita and other species [14, 15].
S. Aslam etal.
7.8 Origin andDistribution ofCOWHEDGE
Plant/Velvet Beans
It is a tropical plant native to southern regions of Asia and Malaysia. It is now
widely distributed throughout tropical areas. It was rst introduced to the southern
United States in the late 1800s, and then to the tropical regions at the beginning of
1900 [16].Velvet beans can be found from sea level to 2100 meters in elevation. It
demands a hot, humid environment with annual rainfall (from 650 to 2500mm in
height) and a long growth season free of frost throughout the season of rainfall. It
may cultivate in a variety of soils, from clays to sands, although it prefers drainage
at a steady rate and light-textured soils with a high acidity level [17]. Bangladesh,
India, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, and Malaysia are among the countries where their
plantations are extensively reported [18]. It is one of India’s most widely used herbal
medicines. It is also grown in Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and in the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands. It may be found in the form of shrubs, hedges, and drydeciduous low woodland types all over the Indian’s grasslands. It nurtures itself
naturally from the lower Himalayan range to Indian’s vast humid grasslands [19].
7.9 Important Phytochemical Constituents ofthePlant
Mucuna prureins seeds contain a variety of valuable phytochemicals (primary
metabolites), including proteins, lipids, dietary bres, carbohydrates and minerals
such as in mg/100g of M. prureins seed our contains sodium (Na) 43.1–150.1mg,
potassium (K) 778.1–1846.0mg, calcium (Ca) 393.4–717.7mg, magnesium (Mg)
174.9–387.6 mg, iron (Fe) 10.8–15.0 mg, zinc (Zn) 5.0–10.9 mg, copper (Cu)
0.9–2.2mg, manganese (Mn) 3.9–4.3mg, and phosphorus (P) 98.4–592.1mg [20].
Phytochemical analysis (secondary metabolites analysis) of Mucuna pruriens
seed extract showed the presence of avonoids, alkaloids, glycosides,
steroids,saponins, terpenoids and tannins. The presence of functional groups of
amides, amines, phosphine, uorides, iodides, bromides, and nitro-substituted aliphatic and aromatic compounds was revealed by IR spectral data. Alkaloids, carboxylic acids, terpenoids, polyphenols and other secondary metabolites have been
detected through GC-MS analysis [21]. L-Dopa is claimed to be a substantial ingredient of the plant, mostly present in the seeds [22–24]. Mucunadine, mucunine,
OH
HO
HO
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149
prurienidine, and prurienine [25] are alkaloidal compounds testied from seeds [26,
27]. Number of amino acids also reported as a nutritious source [28, 29]. Epoxy
fatty acids such as cis-12, 13-epoxyoctadec-trans-9-cis-acid and cis-12,
13-epoxyoctadec-trans-9-enoic acid were also described in the seeds of cowhedge
plant [30]. Seeds have been shown to contain lecithin [31].
7.10 L-Dopa
The existence of the levorotatory form of Dopa (L-Dopa), a starting material of
dopamine, present in the seeds of the Mucuna prureins rendered the plant useful in
curing Parkinson’s disease [32]. In Ayurvedic medicine, the specie of this plant is
utilized to treat disorders of the CNS and geriatric conditions. L-Dopa is being produced in the leaves as well as the roots of M. prurien at a concentration of around
1% by fresh weight. The content of L-Dopa in Mucuna pruriens did not alter signicantly when cultivated in the shade or in an open area. Fully grown seeds, podpericarp, leaves, stems, and roots possess 3.6 to 4.2%, 0.14 to 0.22%, 0.17 to 0.35%,
0.19 to 0.31%, and 0.12 to 0.16%, respectively, and the highest concentration of
L-Dopa was detected in immature seeds. The percentage of L-Dopa in the seeds of
various accessions ranged from 7.62 to 8.37%. L-Dopa is isolated from the seeds of
the cowhedge plant using various extraction techniques. The extraction and quantitative measurement of L-Dopa, present in the seeds of the cowhedge plant, were
done using a high-performance liquid chromatographic technique. L-Dopa concentrations in Mucuna seeds varied from 3.9 to 6.2%, according to an HPLC analysis
report [33]. Velvet bean is thought to emit 100–450kg of L-DOPA per hectare into
the soil. Furthermore, its ability to manage wildowers and nematodes reduces the
need for crops to be treated with articial pesticides (Fig.7.1) [34].
These major biological functions have been directed to chemical studies of
M. pruriens seeds, as a result of which various fatty acids and amino acids, in addition to L-Dopa, have been isolated [35]. Alkaloids like prurienidine, prurienine,
prurieninine,etc. have also been found [36, 37]. Linoleic, palmitic, stearic, oleic,
decanoic, lauric, behenic, arachidic, and vernolic acids are among the oils found in
the seeds (Fig.7.2).
The existence of derivatives of tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids shown below,
whose structures have been identied using spectroscopic techniques, is described
in this work. Because their bicyclic structure imposes conformational limitations
and considerably decreased exibility, tetrahydroisoquinoline-3-carboxylic acids
Fig. 7.1 Structure of
L-dopa
NH
O
2
150
O
O
Arachidicacid
OH
HO
HO
COOH
3,
=
=
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S. Aslam etal.
OH
Linoleic acid
O
OH
Palmitic acid
O
OH
Pentadecanoic acid
O
OH
Dodecanoicacid/ Lauric acid
O
OH
9,12-Octadecadienoic acid (Z,Z)-,methylester
cis-12, 13-epoxyoctadec-trans-9-cis-acid/vernolic
Fig. 7.2 Phytochemical constituents present in M.Pruriens
Fig. 7.3 Structure of
COOH
tetrahydroisoquinoline
alkaloids isolated from
Mucuna purines seeds
NH
2
1
R
R
Oleicacid
Stearic acid
O
Behenicacid
acid
HO
OH
OH
O
OH
O
OH
O
OH
O
NH
2
R
1
R
(Tic) have been demonstrated to be particularly effective as well as selective to opioid receptors for neurotransmitters other than peptide hormones (Fig.7.3) [38, 39].
Some of the phytochemicals have been discussed here;
Β-Sitosterol: Structurally related to cholesterol [40]. It is well suited for breast
cancer [41], colon cancer [42], and hypercholesterolemia [43].
Gallic acid: A study reported the antioxidant [44] and neuroprotective [45] effects
of gallic acids in rats.
Bufotenine: It is found in Mucuna prureins [46], inhibits lipid metabolism pathway
to exhibit anti-inammatory and analgesic actions (Fig.7.4) [47].
Genistein: An isoavonoid from Mucuna seeds acts as an anticancer [48] and anti-
inammatory agent [49].
1
=R2=
1
=
1
H,
R
H
2
CH
R
=
3
CH
2
3
R
1,
R
2,
R
4, R1=R2=
CH
3
HO
Squalene
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Beta- sitosterol
HO
HO
Gallic acid
OH
151
H
O
OH
HO
N
N
Bufotenine
O
OOH
Genistein
OH
NH
-Carboline
N
N
Nicotine
N
OH
Fig. 7.4 Other phytochemical constituents present in M.Pruriens
β-Carboline: Mucuna prureinscontains β-carboline which is Neuroprotective [50],
an antioxidant [51], a MAO inhibitor, promotes dimethyl tryptamine activ-
ity [52].
Nicotine: Reduces levodopa-induced dyskinesia in Parkinsons’ disease rat model
[53, 54].
Squalene: Found in Mununa prureins [55], it is a dietary lipid and has potential
uses in cosmetic dermatology [56], and shows antitumor activities [57].
Glutathione: It is found in M. prureins [58], exhibits a comprehensive role in
Parkinson’s disease [59].
Serotonin: Present in the pods of M. prureins [58], can be used as a prognostic
marker of urological tumors [60].
Harmine: It is found in Mucuna prureins [58] and acts as a glutamate receptor
antagonist (Fig.7.5) [61].
Stizolamine: It is found in Mucuna prureins [62].
Flavone: It is present in M. prureins and can be useful for drug development [63].
Melanin: It is found to be present in the seeds of Mucuna prureins. The seeds get
darker as a result of L-dopa being converted to melanin [58].
DMT & 5-Methoxy-DMT: reduces dyskinesia [64].
Phytic acid: suppresses 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6- tetrahydropyridine- (MPTP)
induced hydroxyl radical generation [65].
Saponins & Tannins: M. prureins contains Saponins [66] and tannins (Fig.7.6) [58].
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