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Файл:Ординатура / Хирургия / Библиотека им академика М.И. Перельмана / Книга_5847_Библиотеки_им_академика_М_И_Перельмана
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M. U. Ijaz et al.
11.4.3 Constraints During Cultivation
Presence of various pests as well as a number of diseases due to various factors such
as fungus, viruses and nematodes cultivation of P. cablin is severely hampered.
Yellow mosaic virus is the major factor that exerts adverse effects on the growth and
reproduction of P. cablin [24, 25]. Furthermore, Peanut Strip Virus and Mottle virus
are also major growth and productivity inhibitors of patchouli plant (27, 28, 29).
One of the signicant difculties encountered during the commercial cultivation of
P. cablin is nematode infection. The most destructive nematode, Meloidogyne
incognita, considerably reduces the output of essential oils and instigate stunt
growth in P. cablin [29].
11.4.4 Climate & Soil Prole
Patchouli grows best in fertile, shaded, well-drained soil that gets frequent irrigation
or steady rainfall. Generally, Southern India following Andaman, Western Ghats
and Nicobar Islands are the places where patchouli ourishes and reproduces at its
best under conditions that are identical to those in the Philippines [1].
Productivity of P. cablin declines when grown in excessively ooded soils. It can
grow up to 500 meters above sea level and can sustain in moderate temperatures of
22–28°C and over 75% humidity. Higher-quality oil has been shown to be produced
on soils with pH levels between 5.5 and 6.2 [3].
11.4.5 Genotype or Cultivars
Swamy etal. found that, in addition to environmental factors including soil and
climate the genotype of the cultivars inuences development and the quality of
patchouli oil [6]. There are multiple varieties of patchouli plant present in current
times, most commonly cultivated varieties are Java, Johore, Singapore and
Indonesia, Malaysia [30].
11.4.6 Planting Time
Planting season of P. cablin is generally regarded as between March and May, then
September and October. It is best to avoid planting in the winter (December–
January) and during a time of heavy rainfall (July–August) because these months
are not considered as favorable for optimum growth of P. cablin [31].
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Vijayalalitha & Rajasekaran revealed that between the month of Nov. to Feb.
with the existence of low ambient temperature, germination of P. cablin is signi-
cantly marvelous (80.4–100%) [32]. The rooting percentage is lower (0.8%) in the
month of June when the temperature reached up to thirty-eight degrees Celsius.
When compare to crops P. cablin planted in March, patchouli crops sown in Feb.
produces considerably high yield of the essential oil (26.6kg/ha) and herb (3.78t/
ha) [33].
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11.4.7 Intercrop
P. cablin can be cultivated in combination with fruit tree, pine, coconut, arecanut,
coffee and rubber crops as an intercrop [34]. In contrast to monoculture, patchouli
cultivation in combination with papaya elevate oil quality by 8–11% as well as oil
yield by 76%. P. cablin and papaya should be cultivated together for their greatest
yield along with efcient utilization of valuable resources [35].
11.5 Essential Oil Extraction ofP.Cablin
11.5.1 Major Plant (P.Cablin) Part forExtraction
ofEssential Oil
Due to prominence of patchouli alcohol as the primary component of essential oil,
P. cablin’s essential oil is in high demand. The extensive use of essential oils is
because of their excellent quality and unbeatable value. Usually, dried patchouli
leaves are used to make P. cablin essential oil. The steam distillation method, super-
critical carbon dioxide (scCO
tus & microwave-assisted hydro-distillation mechanism is used to extract the
essential oil from the dried leaf of P. cablin. Heat-sensitive compounds from aro-
matic plants could be distilled using steam distillation [37].
11.5.2 Extraction Processes ofP.Cablin
In contrast to the hydro-distillation method, which packs plant materials in a particular compartment before adding water in sufcient quantity (usually about two
thirds of the compartment) and heating it to a temperature of 100°C, the procedure
of steam distillation includes passing of steam (bubbles) through a heated raw material sample of particular aromatic plant. Steam distillation is superior than hydrodistillation because it requires shorter extraction time. It produces fewer chemical
) [36], hydro-distillation through a Clevenger appara-
2
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Fig. 11.2 Extraction mechanism used for extraction of essential oils of P. cablin
M. U. Ijaz et al.
changes or alterations to the composition of essential oils because it reduces the
levels of oxidation, uses less energy as well as reduces the likelihood of loss of
multiple polar compounds [38].
The Mechanism of Supercritical CO2 (scCO2) distillation is primarily utilized for
the extraction essential products such as essential oils from a number of plants. In
contradiction to other traditional methods scCO2 involves numerous extraordinary
benets. With this procedure, natural compounds could be effectively extracted specically without experiencing any thermal deterioration. Because it uses minimal
solvents concentration, the essential oil it produces from particular plant is of a better quality (Fig.11.2) [39].
Micro-wave assisted procedure is considered as environment friendly as well as
an effective process for isolating essential oils from a considerable quantity of
medicinal and herbal plants [38]. Different P. cablin leaf drying techniques are stan-
dardized by Pandey etal. for better quality and high yield of essential oils. The
essential oil extracted from their leaves which are dried in the shade has the lowest
patchouli alcohol content (1.40%) while sunlight-dried essential oil has the highest
content of patchouli alcohol (36.63%) [39].
11.5.3 Components ofEssential Oil
P. cablin is utilized as a base material for the synthesis of certain kinds of perfumes.
Therefore, it is a necessary component for the perfume formulating industries [40].
The extraction of essential oils using steam, hydro-distillation & supercritical carbon dioxide distillation shows that the dried leaves contain more essential oils than
fresh leaves [41]. The peculiar aromatic quality of P. cablin essential oil is mostly
due to existence of patchouli alcohol which is a fundamental component of the
essential oils of P. cablin [42].
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Furthermore, the major sesquiterpene in the essential oil of p. cablin is patchouli
alcohol. Along with patchouli alcohol, several other sesquiterpene hydrocarbons
like guaiene, patchoulene & seychellene contributes to the fragrance of P. cablin
essential oil. Numerous studies have found that the two main substance that regulate
and control the quality of patchouli essential oil are patchoulol as well as patchoulene [36, 43].
Beside this, Alpha-bulnesene (8.7%), (E)-caryophyllene (2.4%), patchouli alcohol (61.6%), alpha-guaiene (10.0%), pogostone (1.0%) patchoulene (1.6%), norpatchoulenol (1.6%), b-patchoulene (1.0%), seychellene (3.1%) and
gamma-patchoulene (1.3%) are the main ingredients found in the essential oil of
P. cablin [44].
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11.6 Diseases & Pests
11.6.1 Wilt (Fungal Disease)
One of the most devastating diseases of patchouli plant is wilt (fungal diseases)
which is caused by Rhizoctonia solani [45]. Gliocladium virens, a biologically
antagonistic agent in combination with Glomusaggegatum have successfully inhib-
ited patchouli wilt disease induced by R. solani [46].
11.6.2 Witches Broom Disease
Witches broom disease (WBD) in P. cablin was discovered in 1996–97in India
(Singh et al., 2002b). Leaf shrinkage, axillary branch multiplication, diminished
internodes, stunted development and a bushy appearance are all hallmarks of the
disease. Phytoplasma was identied as the casual pathogen using electron microscopy [47].
11.6.3 Viruses
11.6.3.1 Yellow Scale ofCotton
P. calin viruses generally transmits mechanically, but a limited fraction can spread
via vectors or grafting processes. These viruses have a greater dilution end point
along with heat inactivation level than most of the other viruses [47]. A new record
of the yellow scale of cotton on P. cablin has been detected in Mudigere, India [48].
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M. U. Ijaz et al.
11.6.3.2 P.Cablin Mild Mosaic Virus andPatchouli Mottle Virus
In Japan, Natsuaki et al. found two viruses (sap transmissible) from patchouli.
Plants infected with the virus displayed minimal mosaicism, moulting or sometimes
no symptoms at all. In electron microscopy, virus-like particles are observed which
are either elongated or spherical in appearance. Patchouli Mild Mosaic Virus
(PaMMV) is serologically similar to but distinct from Broad Bean Wilt Fabavirus.
Patchouli Mottle Virus (PaMoV), an elongated virus with a limited host range was
identied as a Potyvirus which has adverse effects on P. cablin [49].
11.6.3.3 P.Cablin Virus X
Meissner Filho etal. described Patchouli virus X, a novel potexvirus identied from
P. cablin in Brazil. The plants having mosaic symptoms is infected by a Potexviral
and Potyvirus [27].
11.6.3.4 Peanut Strip Virus
Patchouli strip virus was discovered in the Institute of Himalayan Bioresource
Technology campus in India, with prominent viral sickness having mosaic marks on
its leaves [26]. Using Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), Reverse
transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), Immunocapture-PCR (IC-PCR)
and sequencing techniques, the virus was later identied as a Peanut stripe virus
(PStV) [28].
11.6.3.5 P.Cablin Yellow Mosaic Virus
Zaim etal. (2013) discovered golden mosaic patterns on the leaves of p. cablin plant
in the experimental elds in Lucknow, India. Using serological and genetic data the
causal virus was identied as Patchouli Yellow Mosaic Virus (PaYMV) which is a
member of the Potyvirus genus.
Healthy patchouli plants have dark green leaves whereas PaYMV-infected plants
contains deformed leaves with yellow mosaic symptoms including yellow blotches
& discolored patches of random shapes and sizes. Infected plants also have severe
growth retardation [50].
11.6.3.6 Prevention fromViruses
If insect vectors are eliminated and virus-resistant/virus-free plants are cultivated by
employing meristem culture techniques, patchouli viruses can be protected more
effectively. In addition to this, use of botanical or chemical insecticides can contribute in the control of insect vectors [47].
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Fig. 11.3 Aphid pests of P. cablin
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11.6.4 Aphids
Aphids such as Aularchis milliaris, Graphium sp., Oxya chinensis, Myzus persicae
and Myzus coccinellids, Pachyzancla stultalis are found to damage patchouli leaves
in an Indonesian study on insect attack of P. cablin (Fig.11.3) [51].
11.6.5 Nematodes
Patchouli production have been found to be reduced up to 75% by the attack of parasitic nematodes [52]. Seven parasitic nematode genera of plants are discovered in a
survey of sick patchouli gardens in West Java [53]. Meloidogyne, Pratylenchus,
Scutellonema, Rotylenchulus, Hemicriconemoides, Helicotylenchus and Xiphinema
are among these 7 lethal nematodes. The primary nematode pathogens associated
with patchouli roots are thought to be three species: Pratylenchus brachyurus,
Meloigogyne incognita and Meloidgyne hapa. Pratylenchus brachyurus is also isolated for the rst time from patchouli roots and soils in Tamil Nadu and Bangalore
[54, 55].
11.6.6 Management & Protection fromNematodes
Best cultural practices including the usage of organic matter, fertilizers, mulch &
dolomite as well as the use of natural nematicides comprising of castor meal, neem
powder can surely reduce damages due to attack of nematodes. Beside this, chemical pesticides and most importantly preventing the spread of nematodes from
infected to uninfected areas can be used to manage these parasitic nematodes [52].
Clove, Castor, citronella plants and Neem as well as several Fungi used for trapping
multiple nematodes (Dactylaria sp., Arthrobotrys sp., and Dactylella sp.) as well as
soil bacteria such as Bacillus and micrococcus can eradicate these nematodes up to
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Fig. 11.4 Major Pests and Diseases of P. cablin
82% [56]. Furthermore, Harni etal. showed that immersing the patchouli plant roots
in endophytic bacterial suspension before transplantation to the eld might suppress
P. brachyurus levels up to 80% (Fig.11.4) [57].
M. U. Ijaz et al.
11.7 Applications ofP.Cablin
11.7.1 Antibacterial Activities
Patchouli plant is used in traditional medicine for the treatment of cold & fungal
infections [58]. Patchouli oil is discovered to be more efcient in controlling 20
bacterial strains as well as 12 different fungal infections demonstrating its antibacterial and anti-fungal potential [59]. The essential oils of patchouli are tested
in-vitro against 17 pathogenic fungus and 16 microorganisms from 3 different geographical locations comprising of China, India, and Indonesia from the nail, mucous
membrane, foot, skin and armpit of different subjects. These ndings revealed that,
P. cablin’s oil expressed clear antifungal and antibacterial action to antagonize damages due to different fungal and bacterial agents [60].
The essential oil of P. cablin effectively suppress the growth of Pseudomonas
aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia & Escherichia coli [61]. Patchoulol & hexane
extract of patchouli leaves (Dried) evidences higher antibacterial activity against
B. subtilis & S. aureus [62, 63].
In-vitro antimicrobial & Molecular docking technology assays are signicantly
used to investigate the antibacterial properties of P. cablin [64]. Pogostone and (−)
patchoulol are the main constituents with the broadest therapeutic potential for bacterial infection. Patchouli as well as geranium leaf aqueous and organic extracts
demonstrated potent antimicrobial effects against E. aerogenes, E. coli and S. aureus
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[65]. Staphylococcus aureus, a food-borne pathogen, is successfully prevented from
forming biolms by patchouli oils [66].
Recently, the essential oils of P. cablin is used in the green synthesis of nanopar-
ticles. These nano biosystems demonstrated excellent resistance to Klebsiella pneu-
moniae and Staphylococcus aureus clinical strain adhesion and biolm development
[67]. Additionally, patchouli oil shown antibacterial action against the bacteria isolated from the faces of lizards [68]. Patchoulol demonstrated selective antibacterial
action against H. pylori without damaging the natural ora of the digestive system.
Patchoulol has the capacity to reduce urease, making it an effective biomolecule for
treating H. pylori induced infections [69]. Using patchouli oil, gram-positive bacteria such as Staphylococcus, Streptococcus and Bacillus species can also inhibited
successfully (Fig.11.5 and Table11.3) [70].
Fig. 11.5 Applications of P. cablin
Table 11.3
essential oils of P. cablin
Plant
Patchouli
Micro-organism (Bacteria) which can be prevented sufciently while utilizing
Micro-organism (Bacteria) which can be effectively managed
by patchouli References
E. coli [61]
H.Pylori [69]
Bacillus & staphylococcus [70]
K.Pneumoniae [67]
S. aureus [66]
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M. U. Ijaz et al.
11.7.2 Antioxidant Activities
Patchouli oil demonstrated effective free radical scavenging capabilities & reduces
the conversion of hexanal to hexanoic acid [71]. Patchouli herb can be used to alleviate brain cell damage brought on by ROS [72]. P. cablin prevents hydrogen
peroxide- induced necrosis and apoptosis in the human neuroglioma cell line A172,
indicating that it may be used to treat a variety of neurodegenerative diseases.
Patchouli oil’s antioxidative properties inhibited photoaging and preserved the
structural integrity of the skin [73].
Additionally, the regeneration of UV-induced skin lesions is accelerated by
patchoulol’s anti-inammatory and antioxidant characteristics along with its capacity to reduce the expression of matrix metalloproteinases [74]. According to a study
by Li etal. patchouli alcohol is effective in lowering the synthesis of TNF-alpha
which instigate mastitis by alterations in lipopolysaccharides located on the outer
membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. Patchouli alcohol has been discovered to
attenuate breast histopathologic aberrations, making it a useful treatment for preventing mastitis [75].
11.7.2.1 Mechanism ofAction
Oxidative stress is described as the increased level of intracellular reactive oxygen
species that further damages DNA, proteins as well as lipids [76]. This mechanism
is correlated with the generation of free radicles invivo [77]. Oxidative stress can
be induced from several endogenous and external factors [78], such as alcohol,
environmental pollutants as well as various sorts of drugs, which ultimately leads
towards various problems such as pre-mature aging along with negative sequelae of
multiple diseases [79]. Nrf-2 is a signicant transcriptional factor that stimulates the
antioxidant response which maintains the expression specic cytoprotective genes
comprising of detoxifying, anti-apoptotic along with anti-oxidant proteins
(Fig.11.6) [80].
Patchouli oil express remarkable antioxidant properties due to its mechanism of
action that promote the removal of superoxide anion free radicals along with
hydroxy free radicles as well as ameliorate the process of lipid peroxidation [81].
Besides this, administration of Pachypodol, an essential compound from p. cablin
can mitigate the production of ROS as well as protect liver cells from oxidative cell
death prompted due to exposure of tert-butyl-hydroperoxide. The critical mechanism of this potential effect correlates with the amplication of endogenous antioxidant defense system through the ERK1/2- dependent activation of Nrf2
pathway [82].
Intake of alcohol can increase the damages due to generation of ROS in the
hepatic tissues, as it elevates the activity of cytochrome P450 2E1 & proceeds to the
production of huge quantity of ROS, this process eventually deteriorates the
oxidation- reduction equilibrium regulated by GSH or GSSG [81, 83]. Ethanolinstigated acute hepatic damage, generally induced via extreme alcohol
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Fig. 11.6 ROS producing agents, damages and therapeutic potential of patchouli alcohol
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consumption, has been correlated with multiple lethal liver disorders such as hepatitis, hepatic brosis, alcoholic fatty liver, seatosis along with cirrhosis [84].
Steatosis in hepatic tissues has been broadly documented as an early as well as
reversible outcome of extreme consumption of alcohol [85], pre-treatment with
patchouli alcohol can effectively elevates the concentration antioxidant enzyme of
liver and promotes the expression of GSH/GSSG proportion. Moreover, patchouli
alcohol stimulates the anti-oxidant enzyme glutathione reductase along with superoxide dismutase in exposed individuals. These mechanisms help to reduce the accumulation of ROS as well as suppresses the expression of various cytokines along
with mRNA coding CYP2-E1. Treatment with patchouli alcohol could also protect
degeneration of fats through its capability to accelerate metabolism of adipose tissues [86]. Heat shocks instigates oxidative stress could accelerates the damages to
skin as well as apoptotic damage to the epithelial-6 cells of the intestine [87]. Preadministration of patchouli alcohol evades the dysregulations to the cellular architecture as well as results in a reduced concentration of MDA.Extensive dosage of
patchouli alcohol resulted in considerable elevation in the expression of HO−1 as
well as Nrf2. To conclude, these results illustrated that, patchouli alcohol is capable
of attenuating cell damages and ameliorating the oxidative stress actions of IEC-6
cells via the stimulation of the Nrf2-keap1 [88].
11.7.3 Antifungal Activities
The mycelial growth of Candida albicans can be restricted by the medium containing 100g/mL of mixture of various oils including lemon grass, thyme, patchouli
and cedarwood [89]. The essential oil of P. cablin contains patchouli alcohol
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