Синтаксис английского языка от слова к тексту = A Students’ Guide to English Syntax from Word to Discourse. Учебное пособие

Chapter I. Simple sentence as a monopredicative construction

3.Your neighbor is locked out of his/her flat.

4.You see a drowning man being rescued.

5.A passer-by accidentally spilt coffee on your jacket.

6.A boy is trying to jump the queue.

7.You and your friend share your impressions of the film recently

seen.

8.A spoilt child will not eat his/her dinner.

9.A student tries to cheat at the exam.

10.A family are planning their vacations.

Exercise 20. REVISION. State whether these sentences are oneor two-member, complete or elliptical, extended or not, define them also by the purpose of communication and emotional colouring.

Her English was excellent.Because she is Balinese,she immediately asked me the three standard introductory questions – Where are you going today? Where are you coming from? Are you married? When I told her I wasnʼt married (“Not yet!”) she looked taken aback. “Never been married?” she asked. “No,” I lied. I donʼt like lying, but I generally have found itʼs easier not to mention divorce to the Balinese because they get so upset about it.“Really never been married?” she asked again, and she was looking at me with great curiosity now. “Honestly,” I lied. “I've never been married.” “You sure?” This was getting weird. “I'm totally sure!” “Not even once?" she asked. OK, so she can see through me. “Well,” I confessed, “there was that one time…” And her face cleared like: Yes, I thought as much. She asked,“Divorced?”“Yes,” I said, ashamed now.“Divorced.” “I could tell you are divorced.”“It's not very common here, is it?”“But me, too,” said Wayan, entirely to my surprise. “Me too, divorced.” “You?” “I did everything I could,” she said. “I tried everything before I got a divorce, praying every day. But I had to go away from him.”

(By E. Gilbert)

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CHAPTER II

THE STRUCTURE OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE

2.1. PARTS OF THE SENTENCE

In a sentence we distinguish the principal parts, secondary parts and independent elements (which stand outside the sentence structure and thus are NOT parts of a sentence).

There are two generally recognized principal (or main) parts of a sentence – the subject and the predicate. Between them they constitute the backbone of the sentence: without them the sentence would not exist at all, whereas all other parts may or may not be there. These secondary parts are the object, the attribute and the adverbial modifier. If they are present in the sentence they serve to define or modify either the subject or the predicate, or each other. Any of the secondary parts might be removed without the sentence being destroyed, whereas the removal of the principal parts would destroy the sentence for sure.

The theory of the secondary parts is one of the least developed sections of linguistics. Their usual classification into objects, attributes and adverbial modifiers is familiar to everyone no matter what their mother tongue may be. Yet it has some weak points. The characteristic features of each of the three types are not clearly defined; consequently, in certain cases one and the same word can be described as an attribute or as an object – it proves to be the matter of personal opinion or predilection. Still we consider this approach a useful and reliable one, though some scholars discard this theory altogether and attempt to analyze the sentence structure in different terms.

In this chapter we will try to look at the two principal parts and at the three traditional secondary parts and try to find out on what principles their distinction is based and what objective criteria can be found to identify them.

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Chapter II. The structure of a simple sentence

2.2. THE SUBJECT

The subject is the principal part of a sentence which is grammatically independent of the other parts of the sentence and on which the second principal part (the predicate) is grammatically dependent. The subject can denote a living being, a lifeless thing or an abstract notion, an idea. The subject can be expressed by a single word or a group of words. Thus it can be expressed by:

1.A noun in the common case or a nominal phrase with a noun. e.g. A great number of trees were destroyed by the fire.

2.A personal pronoun in the nominative case.

e.g. I shall do the best I can.

3.Any other noun-pronouns (interrogative, indefinite, demonstrative).

e.g. Who told you about it? This is my car.

Somebody is calling you by name.

4.A numeral (either cardinal or ordinal) or a nominal phrase with a numeral.

e.g. Seven can’t be divided by two.

Among the seasons of “Sherlock” the first is my favorite.

5.A substantivized adjective or participle

e.g. In modern society the rich detest the poor more and more. Oh, my beloved is far away from me now!

6.An infinitive or an infinitive complex. e.g. To understand is to forgive.

For her to fall asleep in broad daylight was not at all usual.

7.A gerund or a gerundial complex.

e.g. Working for someone keeps a woman calm and contented. His coming late irritated me.

8.Any word or words used in quotation marks. e.g. “And” is a conjunction.

9.A clause, which makes the whole sentence a complex one. e.g. What girls of her sort want is a wedding ring.

From the point of view of its grammatical value the subject may

be either notional or formal.

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Ю. М. СЕРГЕЕВА, И. О. СЫРЕСИНА. СИНТАКСИС АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА: ОТ СЛОВА К ТЕКСТУ

YULIA SERGEEVA, IRINA SYRESINA. A STUDENTS’ GUIDE TO ENGLISH SYNTAX: FROM WORD TO DISCOURSE

The notional subject denotes or (if expressed by a pronoun) points out a person, a non-person, or a fact.

e.g. I know all about it.

To be a friend takes time.

The formal subject neither denotes nor points out any person or non-person or fact and is only a structural element of the sentence filling the position of the subject. Thus a formal subject functions only as a position-filler. In English there are two formal subjects: it and there.

The formal subject expressed by it is found in two patterns of sentences: those with impersonal it and those with introductory it. The formal subject it is impersonal when it is used in sentences describing various states of nature, things in general, characteristics oftheenvironment,ordenotingtime,distance,andothermeasurements.

e.g. It is spring. It is cold today. It is five o’clock.

The formal subject it is introductory if it introduces the notional subject expressed by an infinitive, a gerund, an infinitive/gerundial predicative complex, or a clause. The sentence thus contains two subjects: the formal (introductory) subject it and the notional subject, which follows the predicate.

e.g. It’s impossible to deny this.

It was no good coming there again.

Sentences with the notional subject introduced by the formal subject there express the existence or coming into existence of a person or non-person denoted by the subject. Such sentences may be called existential sentences or sentences of presentation. They are employed where the subject presents some new idea or the most important piece of information. The notional subject introduced by there may be expressed by a noun or a noun phrase, a pronoun, a gerund or gerundial phrase, or by a clause.

e.g. There was silence for a moment.

There is no forgetting the past.

2.3. THE PREDICATE

The predicate is the principal part of the sentence which expresses an action, state, or quality of the person or thing

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Chapter II. The structure of a simple sentence

denoted by the subject. It is grammatically dependent upon the subject.

As a rule the predicate contains a finite verb which may express tense, mood, voice, aspect, and sometimes person and number. According to the structure and the meaning of the predicate we distinguish two main types: the simple predicate and the compound predicate.

The simple predicate is expressed by a finite verb in a simple or analytical tense form or by a phraseological unit. The characteristic feature of the latter type (the phraseological or phrasal predicate) is that the first component has lost its concrete meaning, consequently, the noun cannot be treated as an object to the verb.

We distinguish two types of the phraseological (phrasal) predicate:

1)word combinations consisting of a finite verb which has lost its concrete meaning and a noun formed from a verb and mostly used with the indefinite article: to have a smoke, to have a swim, to have a run, to give a laugh, to give a push, to take a look, to make a move, etc.

e.g. Nurse Sharp gave him a look and walked out.

2)word combinations in which the second component is in most cases an abstract noun used with the zero article: to get rid, to get hold, to make use, to take care, to lose sight, to make fun, to pay attention, to make up one’s mind, to change one’s mind, to take part, etc.

e.g. Are you taking part in the concert?

NB! The simple predicate as well as the phrasal predicate always names ONE action or process or state irrespectively of the number of auxiliary verbs which accompany the notional one.

The compound predicate consists of at least two parts and it may be nominal or verbal.

The compound nominal predicate denotes the state or quality of a person or thing expressed by the subject. It consists of a link verb and a predicative (the latter is also called the nominal part of the predicate).

The link verb expresses the verbal categories of person, number, tense, aspect, mood, sometimes voice. All link verbs have partly lost their original concrete meaning (the verb to be performs only a grammatical function). The most common of these link verbs are: to appear, to be, to become, to fall, to feel, to get, to grow, to go, to keep, to look, to prove, to rank, to remain, to run, to seem, to smell, to sound, to taste, to stand, to turn, to turn out.

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Ю. М. СЕРГЕЕВА, И. О. СЫРЕСИНА. СИНТАКСИС АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА: ОТ СЛОВА К ТЕКСТУ

YULIA SERGEEVA, IRINA SYRESINA. A STUDENTS’ GUIDE TO ENGLISH SYNTAX: FROM WORD TO DISCOURSE

e.g. The man looked cheerful. It was getting dark.

Some of these verbs, though fully preserving their concrete meaning, function as link verbs: they are used with a predicative and form а compound nominal predicate which should be distinguished from a simple verbal predicate:

e.g. He stood firm in his beliefs.– He stood at the table reading a letter. The food looks strange to me, I won’t try it.– Why are you looking

at me so intensely?

The predicative is the significant part of the compound nominal predicate. It can be expressed in different ways:

1)By a noun in a common case or a noun in the possessive case. e.g. It was a brand new vehicle.

The car was my husband’s.

2)By an adjective (by a substantivized adjective as well)

e.g. It was difficult.

What I’m really scared of is the future.

3)By a pronoun: personal, possessive, negative, interrogative, indefinite.

e.g. It’s me.

He is a mere nobody.

The i-pad is yours, isn’t it?

4)By a stative (a specific type of adjective which always denotes a state, never a property).

e.g. I was wide awake by this time. The house was ablaze.

The door stood ajar.

5)By a numeral, cardinal or ordinal.

e.g. He was sixty last year. Who is the first to answer?

6)By a prepositional phrase. e.g. She is on our side.

7)By an infinitive, infinitive phrase, or an infinitive complex. e.g. His first thought was to run away.

My only desire is for you to live happily.

8)By a gerund, gerundial phrase or gerundial complex.

e.g. My hobby is dancing.

What irritates a lot is his being always right.

9) By Participle II or very seldom Participle I: the latter is generally adjectivized.

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Chapter II. The structure of a simple sentence

e.g. The window is broken. That sounded quite distressing.

The compound verbal predicate can be divided into two types according to the meaning of the finite verb: 1) the compound verbal modal predicate, 2) the compound verbal aspect predicate.

The compound verbal modal predicate shows whether the action expressed by a non-finite form of the verb is considered as possible, impossible, obligatory, necessary, desirable, etc. The compound verbal modal predicate may consist of the following components:

1)A modal verb and an infinitive (can, may, must, should, would, ought, dare, need + Infinitive).

e.g. You must forget it. He is to come at five.

Don’t dare talk to me like this!

2)A verb with a modal meaning and an infinitive or a gerund (to hope, to expect, to intend, to attempt, to try, to endeavor, to long, to wish, to want, to desire, etc. + Infinitive/Gerund).

e.g. He hoped to see them the next day.

3)Modal expressions and an infinitive. Here belong such combinations as to be able, to be obliged, to be bound, to be willing, to be anxious, to be capable, to be going followed by the infinitive.

e.g. Are you able to walk another two miles?

NB. The latter two cases are rather disputable and can be considered simple (2) or compound (3) predicate with an object.

The compound verbal aspect predicate expresses the beginning, repetition, duration, or cessation of the action expressed by the non-finite form of the verb. It consists of such verbs as to begin, to start, to commence, to fall, to set about, to go on, to keep on, to proceed, to continue, to stop, to give up, to finish, to cease, to come and an infinitive or a gerund. Here also belong would and used + Infinitive, which denote a repeated action in the past.

e.g. He began to talk about the famous father of his.

Has it stopped raining yet?

Mixed types of predicate are those in which we have elements of two types of predicates (compound nominal and compound verbal predicates). Such predicates contain three components. Thus we have:

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Ю. М. СЕРГЕЕВА, И. О. СЫРЕСИНА. СИНТАКСИС АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА: ОТ СЛОВА К ТЕКСТУ

YULIA SERGEEVA, IRINA SYRESINA. A STUDENTS’ GUIDE TO ENGLISH SYNTAX: FROM WORD TO DISCOURSE

1.The compound modal nominal predicate. e.g. We were anxious to cooperate.

2.The compound aspect nominal predicate. e.g. He was beginning to look desperate.

3.The compound modal aspect predicate. e.g. You ought to stop doing that.

Double predicate

This predicate expresses the state or quality of the person or thing denoted by the subject and is generally expressed by a finite verb combined with a noun, an adjective, a word denoting state, or a prepositional phrase.

To identify this type of a predicate you need to split the sentence into two parts: the one denoting an action of the subject and the other denoting its state.

e.g. He painted the door green. = He painted the door. + It was green.

He came home a new man. = He came home. + He was a new man.

2.4. AGREEMENT OF THE PREDICATE WITH THE SUBJECT

The most important type of agreement (concord) in English is that of the subject and the predicate in number and person. Thus a singular noun-subject requires a singular verb-predicate, a plural noun-subject requires a plural verb-predicate.

1. This rule of purely grammatical agreement concerns all present tenses (except modal verbs) and also the past indefinite of the verb to be.

World literature knows many great humorists. Great humorists know how to make people laugh.

This rule remains true for:

a)All link verbs irrespective of the number of the predicative noun, as in:

Our only guide was the Polar star. Our only guide was the stars.

b)The predicate of emphatic constructions with the formal subject it.

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Chapter II. The structure of a simple sentence

It was my friends who suddenly arrived. It’s they who are responsible for the delay.

2. The verb-predicate is in the singular if the subject is expressed by: a) An infinitive phrase or phrases.

To know everything is to know nothing.

To be loved is always good.

b) A clause introduced by a conjunction or conjunctive adverb.

How you got there is beyond my understanding. Whether you find him or not does not concern me.

NOTE. Subject clauses introduced by conjunctive pronouns what, who may be followed by either a singular or plural verb.

What I want to do is to save us.

What were once precious manuscripts were scattered all over the floor. What I say and what I think are my own affair.

c)A numerical expression, such as arithmetical addition, subtraction, multiplication, division.

Four and four is eight. Four minus two is two. Ten divided by five is two.

NOTE. However multiplication admits of two variants.

Twice two is/are four.

d)The group many a + noun.

Many a lie has been told.

e)Plural nouns or phrases when they are used as names, titles, quotations.

“Fathers and Sons” is the most popular of Turgenev’s novels.

NOTE. However, the titles of some works which are collections of stories, etc., may have either a singular or a plural verb.

“The Canterbury Tales” consist/consists of about seventeen thousand lines of verse.

Turgenev’s “Hunter’s Tales” was/were published in 1852.

f)If the predicate precedes a number of homogeneous subjects and the first is a singular noun.

Here is Tom and Peter.

3. With there-constructions followed by subjects of different number, the predicate agrees with the subject that stands first. It is called the rule of proximity.

There was a textbook and many notebooks on the table. There were many notebooks and a textbook on the table.

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Ю. М. СЕРГЕЕВА, И. О. СЫРЕСИНА. СИНТАКСИС АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА: ОТ СЛОВА К ТЕКСТУ

YULIA SERGEEVA, IRINA SYRESINA. A STUDENTS’ GUIDE TO ENGLISH SYNTAX: FROM WORD TO DISCOURSE

In informal style, however, the singular verb is often used in both cases.

Is there any place in town that might have them? – There’s two. Both closed.

There’s too many of them living up there. There’s two kinds of men here, you’ll find.

4. In Modern English we sometimes find a conflict between form and meaning. In such cases the principle of grammatical agreement is not observed. This makes it difficult to summarize the system of English subject-predicate agreement. The difficulties are caused by 1) the peculiarities of some pronouns, 2) the peculiarities of some conjunctions, and 3) the conflict between the meaning and the form in some nouns. This type of agreement is sometimes called notional agreement.

1)Indefinite pronouns (somebody, someone, anybody, everybody, everyone, everything, each, either), negative pronouns (nobody, no one, neither, etc.) have a singular predicate.

Somebody is asking for you. Everyone of us is present.

Neither of the students has made a mistake.

However, none has both a singular and a plural verb-predicate depending on the semantics of the subject.

He has many friends, but none are there to help him. None of them have come.

Is there any water in the kettle? – No, there is none.

All in the sense of «всё» has a singular verb while all in the sense of «вce» takes a plural verb.

All is well that ends well. All that glitters is not gold. All were in favor of the plan.

2)Interrogative pronouns who, what have a singular verbpredicate.

Who has come? What is there?

But if the pronoun denotes more than one person or thing a plural verb-predicate may be used.

Who are talking in the garden? Who have agreed to act?

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