Синтаксис английского языка от слова к тексту = A Students’ Guide to English Syntax from Word to Discourse. Учебное пособие

Chapter II. The structure of a simple sentence

like him hanging around with the Muslim kids, mostly on account of the fact that they were always barefoot, which Yudhi also liked to be, but she thought it was unhygienic, so she gave her son a choice – he could either wear shoes and play outside, or he could stay barefoot and remain indoors. Yudhi doesn’t like wearing shoes, so he spent a big chunk of his childhood and adolescence life in his bedroom, and that’s where he learned how to play the guitar. The guy has a musical ear like maybe nobody I've ever met. He’s beautiful with the guitar, never had lessons but understands melody and harmony like they were the kid sisters he grew up with. He makes these EastWest blends of music that combine classical Indonesian lullabies with reggae groove and early-days Stevie Wonder funk – it’s hard to explain, but he should be famous. I never knew anybody who heard Yudhi’s music who didn't think he should be famous.

By E. Gilbert

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CHAPTER III

COMPOSITE SENTENCE AS A POLYPREDICATIVE

CONSTRUCTION

The composite sentence is built up by two or more clauses (predicative lines). Clauses in a composite sentence may be joined by means of coordination or subordination, thus forming a compound or a complex sentence.

Coordination is a way of linking grammatical elements to make them equal in rank. Subordination is a way of linking grammatical elements that makes one of them dependent upon the other.

3.1. COMPOUND SENTENCE: ITS STRUCTURE AND DERIVATION

The compound sentence is based on coordination,i.e.the clauses in a compound sentence are arranged as units of syntactically equal rank. They are coordinate clauses.

The very first part of a compound sentence is called the leading clause, all other parts are called sequential clauses.

e.g. James needed sleep (the leading clause), for it was very near Christmas now (the first sequential clause) and there was much work to do (the second sequential clause).

In a compound sentence the clauses are connected:

a) asyndetically – without a conjunction or conjunctive adverb, i.e. with the help of graphical means (comma, colon, semi-colon, dash)

e.g. He came, he saw, he won.

He laid the baby gently on the doorstep, took a letter out of his cloak, tucked it inside the blanket: that was all for him to do.

b) syndetically – by means of conjunctions (and, or, else, but, while, for, so, nor, not only… but (also), as well as) or conjunctive adverbs (moreover, however, still, therefore, otherwise, yet, nevertheless, accordingly, consequently, hence).

e.g. A shadow of a grin showed itself on the man’s lips, however he remained silent.

There was nothing offensive in her words, but the child started to cry.

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Usually the following types of coordination are singled out: copulative, adversative, disjunctive, causative-consecutive.

Copulative coordination is expressed by the conjunctions and, nor, neither… nor, not only… but (also), as well as, and the conjunctive adverbs then, moreover, besides. Copulative coordination implies the information conveyed by coordinate clauses is in some way similar.

e.g. The front door to the house opened, and a man and a woman stepped out on the wooden porch.

The grown-ups never really knew how lonely he felt, nor did they want to know.

Adversative coordination is expressed by the conjunctions but, while, whereas, and the conjunctive adverbs yet, nevertheless, still, however, and the conjunctive particle only.

These are conjunctions and adverbs connecting two clauses contrasting in meaning.

e.g. The story was not amusing, but everybody laughed just to please the hostess.

Nobody was quite sure of his arrival, yet they were here, waiting.

Disjunctive coordination implies a choice between two mutually exclusive alternatives. The disjunctive conjunctions are or, either… or, the conjunctive adverbs else (or else), otherwise.

e.g. Either listen to me, or I shall stop reading to you.

They must not tell the police, otherwise they will be in awful trouble.

Causative-consecutive coordination joins clauses connected in such a way that one of them contains a reason and the other a consequence. The following conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs are used: for, so; accordingly, consequently, hence, therefore.

e.g. There was something wrong with Mr. Lightwood, for he was strangely grave and looked ill.

He could see them clearly, so they could inevitably see him.

The analysis of a compound sentence

During the ride brother and sister spoke little, for they didn’t want to, and the time wouldn’t allow them to slacken their pace.

It is a compound sentence.

The leading clause is During the ride brother and sister spoke little.

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YULIA SERGEEVA, IRINA SYRESINA. A STUDENTS’ GUIDE TO ENGLISH SYNTAX: FROM WORD TO DISCOURSE

The first sequential clause is for they didn’t want to.

The second sequential clause is and the time wouldn’t allow them to slacken their pace.

All the clauses are joined syndetically: the leading clause is joined to the first sequential clause by means of causative-consecutive conjunction for, the second sequential clause is joined by a copulative conjunction and.

His heart missed a beat, he got slowly to his feet gripping a spear. It is a compound sentence.

The leading clause is His heart missed a beat.

The sequential clause is he got slowly to his feet gripping a spear. The clauses are joined asyndetically, by means of a comma.

3.2. COMPLEX SENTENCE. TYPES OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

The complex sentence is based on subordination and consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses.

Clauses in a complex sentence may be linked in two ways: 1. Syndetically, i.e. by means of certain connectors. There are three types of connectors in a complex sentence:

a)subordinating conjunctions (when, while, till, until, before, after, as soon as, if, unless, because, as, since, so that, though, etc);

b)conjunctive pronouns/adverbs (who, whose, what, which, that, where, when, why, how);

c)relative pronouns/adverbs (who, whose, what, which, that, where, when, why, how).

There is a difference between a conjunction and a conjunctive pronoun/adverb. A conjunction only serves as a formal element connecting separate clauses, whereas a conjunctive pronoun/adverb serves as a connecting link and has at the same time a syntactic function in the subordinate clause it introduces.

e.g. More and more, she became convinced that some misfortune had overtaken Paul. (CONJUNCTION, as it is not a part of a subordinate clause)

Nobody knows what has happened to him (CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUN, as it is the subject in a subordinate clause).

Relative pronouns/adverbs also have a syntactic function in the subordinate clause they introduce, and moreover they have an

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antecedent in the principal clause. An antecedent is a word or a phrase to which the subordinate clause refers semantically.

e.g. I consulted my father who promised to help me. (RELATIVE PRONOUN,the subject in the subordinate clause,has the antecedent– father).

They see no reason why they should not do so. (RELATIVE ADVERB, adverbial modifier of cause in the subordinate clause, has the antecedent – reason).

Compare: He used to go to school there until the day when the whole family went to live abroad (RELATIVE ADVERB)

I just wanted to ask when you would call me again (CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB)

Hardly had we sat down to table when the doorbell rang

(CONJUNCTION)

2. Asyndetically, i.e. without a conjunction or any other connector.

e.g. I wish you had come earlier.

He asked me to spend the money on something I wanted myself.

A subordinate clause may follow,precede,or interrupt the principal clause.

e.g. His steps quickened as he set out for the hotel.

As the family had no visitors that day, its four members dined alone together.

All the girls that he knew liked tall men with cars.

A complex sentence may contain two or more homogeneous clauses coordinated with each other.

e.g. They were all obstinately of opinion that the poor girl had stolen the moonstone, and that she had destroyed herself in terror of being found out.

The type of subordination as in the example above is called parallel, because in this case both subordinate clauses refer to the same principal clause.

A subordinate clause may be subordinated to the principal clause or to another subordinate clause.Accordingly,we distinguish subordinate clauses of the first, second, third, etc. degree of subordination. This type of subordination is referred to as consecutive.

e. g. I don’t mind making the admission that there are certain forms of so-called humor, or, at least, fun, which I am quite unable to appreciate.

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YULIA SERGEEVA, IRINA SYRESINA. A STUDENTS’ GUIDE TO ENGLISH SYNTAX: FROM WORD TO DISCOURSE

Types of subordinate clauses

The problem of classifying subordinate clauses is one of the vexed questions in syntactic theory. Several approaches have been tried at various times, and practically each of them has some drawback or other. As we proceed to analyze a complex sentence we shall consider syntactical function of the subordinate clause sufficient to determine its structural type.

According to their grammatical function in the sentence subordinate clauses are divided into subject, predicative, object, attributive, and adverbial clauses.

3.2.1.Nominal Clauses Subject Clauses

Subject clauses perform the function of the subject to the predicate of the principal clause. Attention should be paid to the peculiar structure of the principal clause, which in this case has no subject expressed by a single word: the subordinate clause serves as such.

e.g. What I want to do is to save us both.

If a subject clause follows the principal clause the introductory it is used in the principal clause.

e.g. It was always possible that they might encounter someone.

Subject clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following ways:

(a) by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether.

e.g. It was unfortunate that the patient was brought in too late to be saved.

Whether she is eager to stay or to leave is more than I can tell.

(b)by means of the conjunctive pronouns who, which, what, whoever, whatever or the conjunctive adverbs where, when, how, why.

e.g. What was done cannot be undone.

Whatever I can do for you will be a pleasure to me.

(c)asyndetically.

e.g. It is a pity her brother should be quite a stranger to her.

Predicative Clauses

Predicative clauses perform the function of a predicative. The peculiarity of complex sentences with a predicative clause is that in the principal clause we find only part of the predicate,

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i.e. a link verb, which together with the predicative clause forms a compound nominal predicate.

Predicative clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following ways:

(a)by means of the conjunctions that, if, whether, as if: e.g. Our attitude simply is that facts are facts.

My only thought now is whether anything can be done to save him.

(b)by means of the connectors who, which, what (conjunctive pronouns), where, when, how, why (conjunctive adverbs):

e.g. The time of sunset was always what I loved best.

The main problem is where we can get money to pay the debts.

(c)asyndetically:

e.g. Another thing was they had nurse Andrews staying on with them that week.

Object Clauses

Object clauses perform the function of an object to the predicateverb of the principal clause.

e.g. I don’t know what you are talking about.

An object clause may also refer to a non-finite form of the verb, to an adjective, or to a stative.

e.g. I formed the habit of calling in on him in the evening to discuss what I had heard.

They were not sure what tomorrow would bring forth.

The poor girl is anxious that you should be at her wedding. She was aware that someone else was there.

Object clauses are connected with the principal clause in the following ways:

(a) by means of conjunctions that, if, whether:

e.g. You know quite well that I have not done it on purpose. Time will show whether you are right or wrong.

(b)by means of the connectives who, which, what, whatever, whoever, whichever (conjunctive pronouns); where, when, how, why

(conjunctive adverbs):

e.g. I’ll do just what I say.

He wondered why he should look back. I don’t know where he lives.

(c)asyndetically:

e.g. He said there was nothing much the matter with me.

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YULIA SERGEEVA, IRINA SYRESINA. A STUDENTS’ GUIDE TO ENGLISH SYNTAX: FROM WORD TO DISCOURSE

An object clause is sometimes preceded by the introductory object it.

e.g. I insist upon it that you tell me what you mean.

3.2.2. Attributive Clauses

Attributive clauses serve as an attribute to a noun in the principal clause. This noun or pronoun is called the antecedent of the clause. According to their meaning and the way they are connected with the principal clause attributive clauses are divided into relative and appositive ones.

Attributive relative clauses qualify the antecedent. They are joined to the principal clause syndetically – by means of connectors, and asyndetically.

Attributive relative clauses can be restrictive (= limiting) and nonrestrictive (= descriptive).

An attributive relative limiting clause restricts the meaning of the antecedent which is modified by the definite article. It cannot be removed without destroying the meaning of the sentence. It is not separated by a comma from the principal clause because of its close connection with it. Attributive relative restrictive clauses are introduced by:

(a)relative pronouns (who, whose, which, that);

(b)relative adverbs (where, when);

(c)asyndetically.

e.g. You are the only person who can understand my grief.

We were looking for the place where we had made a camp the previous night but couldn’t find it.

The best thing you can do now is to leave me alone.

An attributive relative descriptive clause does not restrict the meaning of the antecedent but gives some additional information about it. The antecedent usually has the indefinite or the zero article. The clauses can be omitted without destroying the meaning of the sentence. As the connection between the principal clause and the attributive non-restrictive clause is loose, they are often separated by a comma.

Attributive relative non-restrictive clauses are in most cases introduced syndetically by means of:

(a) relative pronouns (who, which, that);

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(b) relative adverbs (where, when).

e.g. You could not but feel sympathy for a man who took so much delight in simple things.

She uttered a wild scream, which seemed to echo for miles.

It is not a book that I would recommend for my students to read.

NOTE. Conjunction as introduces attributive clauses when the demonstrative pronoun such is used in the principal clause.

e.g. He sang a loud song… such a song as everyone knows since childhood.

Attributive appositive clauses disclose the meaning of the antecedent, which is expressed by an abstract noun. An attributive appositive clause is not separated from the principal clause by a comma; such clauses are joined only syndetically – by means of conjunctions.

Appositive clauses are chiefly introduced by the conjunction that, occasionally by the conjunction whether or by the adverbs how and why.

e.g. He stopped in the hope that she would speak.

I have a doubt whether he is bringing trouble and misery with him into the house.

The use of relative pronouns in attributive relative clauses

In using the pronouns who, whom, whose, which, that, the following rules should be observed:

1.If the antecedent is a noun denoting a living being, who and its derivatives are mostly used.

e.g. Kate turned to the man, who was nearest to her, to ask for assistance.

You are the one to whom I can spill my heart.

2.If the antecedent is a noun denoting an inanimate object, which is mostly used.

e.g. The castle, which stood on the highest hill, was built of rough limestone.

3.The pronoun that may be used with both animate and inanimate objects. The use of this pronoun in attributive clauses is limited to the following cases:

(a) if the antecedent is the pronoun all, everything, nothing, anything.

e.g. All that she dreams of comes true.

You have said nothing that might have hurt me.

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YULIA SERGEEVA, IRINA SYRESINA. A STUDENTS’ GUIDE TO ENGLISH SYNTAX: FROM WORD TO DISCOURSE

(b) if the antecedent is modified by an adjective in the superlative degree or by the adjective only.

e.g. The door opened, and there entered to us the most remarkablelooking man that I had ever seen.

It is the only chance to win that we still have.

NOTE. If the antecedent of the attributive clause is the whole principal clause the pronoun which is always used.

e.g. He is always late for classes which annoys his teachers but not him. He decided to speak openly with her about a rather ticklish subject

which could lead to strained relations between them.

3.2.3. Adverbial Clauses

An adverbial clause performs the function of an adverbial modifier.It can modify a verb,an adjective or an adverb in the principal clause.

According to their meaning we distinguish the following kinds of adverbial clauses: adverbial clauses of time, place, cause (reason), purpose, condition, concession, result, manner, and comparison.

Adverbial clauses are joined to the principal clause by means of subordinating conjunctions; they are not joined to the principal clause asyndetically (except sometimes adverbial clauses of condition).

An adverbial clause may precede the principal clause to which it is subordinated or follow it. In the first case it is separated from the principal clause by a comma, in the second, as a rule, no comma is used. An adverbial clause may also interrupt the principal clause, in which case a comma is used at the beginning and at the end of it.

e.g. When things are at the worst, they are sure to mend.

The first words, when we had taken our seats, were spoken by the chairman.

1. Adverbial clauses of time.

An adverbial clause of time shows the time of the action expressed in the principal clause. Adverbial clauses of time are introduced by the following conjunctions: when, while, whenever (когда бы ни), as, till, until, as soon as, as long as, since, after, before, now that (теперь, когда).

e.g. Jan waved till the taxi disappeared round the bend of the road.

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