Синтаксис английского языка от слова к тексту = A Students’ Guide to English Syntax from Word to Discourse. Учебное пособие

Chapter IV. Basic rules of punctuation

4.to select a word that is used in a special or peculiar way or to show that you don’t necessarily approve of it. It is a way to imply that you want to distance yourself from the word. Such quotation marks are commonly called scare quotes or shudder quotes:

e.g. You call this filthy room “clean”?!

He still works 40 hours a week but insists that he is “retired.”

5.to indicate a term in scientific research:

e.g. “There” and “their” are easily confused because they are homophones.

The term “metadiscourse” is used for those devices which do not pertain directly to the subject matter of the discourse but which help guide the reader through the text.

4.2.PUNCTUATION MARKS IN A COMPOSITE SENTENCE

4.2.1.Comma

1.Use commas to separate independent clauses when they are joined by any of these coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet.

e.g. The game was over, but the crowd refused to leave.

The student explained her question, yet the instructor still didn't seem to understand.

Yesterday was her brother's birthday, so she took him out to dinner.

2.Use commas after introductory clauses that come before the main clause.

Common starter words for introductory clauses that should be followed by a comma include after, although, as, because, if, since, when, while.

e.g. While I was eating, the cat scratched at the door.

As her alarm clock was broken, she was late for class.

If you are ill, you ought to see a doctor.

When the snow stops falling, we'll shovel the driveway.

However, don't put a comma after the main clause when a dependent (subordinate) clause follows it (except for cases of extreme contrast).

INCORRECT: The cat scratched at the door, while I was eating.

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YULIA SERGEEVA, IRINA SYRESINA. A STUDENTS’ GUIDE TO ENGLISH SYNTAX: FROM WORD TO DISCOURSE

CORRECT: She was still quite upset, although she had won the Oscar. This comma use is correct because it is an example of extreme

contrast.

3. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off clauses that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the pause you make while uttering the sentence.

Here are some clues to help you decide whether the clause is essential:

a)If you leave out the clause, does the sentence still make sense?

b)Does the clause interrupt the flow of words in the original sentence?

c)If you move the element to a different position in the sentence, does the sentence still make sense?

If you answer “yes” to one or more of these questions, then the element in question is nonessential and should be set off with commas. Here are some example sentences with nonessential elements:

e.g. That Tuesday, which happens to be my birthday, is the only day when I am available to meet you.

Fred, who often cheats, is just harming himself.

The Green party candidate, who had the least money, lost the election.

Apples, which are my favorite fruit, are the main ingredient in this

recipe.

Two hundred dollars, I think, is sufficient.

NB! Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence such as (a) attributive clauses beginning with that as a relative pronoun and (b) object clauses after a verb expressing mental action or sense perception introduced by conjunction that.

(a) Attributive clauses after nouns:

The book that I borrowed from you is excellent. The apples that fell out of the basket are bruised.

(b) Object clauses following a verb of mental activity or sense perception:

She believes that she will be able to earn an A.

He is dreaming that he can fly.

I contend that it was wrong to mislead her.

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They wished that warm weather would finally arrive.

If the antecedent for the relative clause is a human being the introductory element is a relative pronoun who (whom):

e.g. Students who cheat only harm themselves.

The candidate who had the least money lost the election. The man whom you are looking at is my former colleague.

4. Use commas to separate three or more clauses written in a series. e.g. The prosecutor argued that the defendant, who was at the scene of the crime, who had a strong revenge motive, and who had access to

the murder weapon, was guilty of homicide.

4.2.2. Direct Quotations

Direct quotations involve incorporating another person's exact words into your own writing.

Use a comma to shift between the main discourse and a quotation. e.g. John said without emotion, “I'll see you tomorrow.”

“I was able,” she answered, “to complete the assignment.” In 1848, Marx wrote, “Workers of the world, unite!”

Quotation marks always come in pairs. Do not open a quotation and fail to close it at the end of the quoted material.

Capitalize the first letter of a direct quote when the quoted material is a complete sentence.

e.g. Mr. Johnson, who was working in his field that morning, said, “The alien spaceship appeared right before my own two eyes.”

Do not use a capital letter when the quoted material is a fragment or only a piece of the original material's complete sentence.

e.g. Although Mr. Johnson has seen odd happenings on the farm, he stated that the spaceship “certainly takes the cake” when it comes to unexplainable activity.

If a direct quotation is interrupted mid-sentence, do not capitalize the second part of the quotation.

e.g. “I didn't see an actual alien being,” Mr. Johnson said, “but I sure wish I had.”

In all the examples above, note how the period or comma punctuation always comes before the final quotation mark. It is important to realize also that when you are using MLA citation style or some other format of documentation, this punctuation rule may change.

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YULIA SERGEEVA, IRINA SYRESINA. A STUDENTS’ GUIDE TO ENGLISH SYNTAX: FROM WORD TO DISCOURSE

When quoting text with a spelling or grammar error, you should transcribe the error exactly in your own text. However, also insert the term sic in italics directly after the mistake, and enclose it in brackets. Sic is from the Latin, and translates to “thus”, “so”, or “just as that”. The word tells the reader that your quote is an exact reproduction of what you found, and the error is not your own.

e.g. Mr. Johnson says of the experience, “It's made me reconsider the existence of extraterestials [sic].”

Quotations are most effective if you use them sparingly and keep them relatively short. Too many quotations in a research paper will get you accused of not producing original thought or material; they may also bore a reader who wants to know primarily what YOU have to say on the subject.

Indirect quotations.

Indirect quotations are not exact wording but rather summing up another person's words. In this case, it is not necessary to use quotation marks. However, indirect quotations still require proper citations, and you will be committing plagiarism if you fail to do so. e.g. Mr. Johnson, a local farmer, reported last night that he saw an

alien spaceship on his own property.

Many students struggle with when to use direct quotations or indirect quotations. Use the following tips to guide you in your choice.

Use direct quotations when the source material uses language that is particularly striking or notable. Do not rob such language of its power by altering it.

e.g.Martin Luther King Jr.believed that the end of slavery was important and of great hope to millions of slaves done horribly wrong.

The above should never stand in for:

Martin Luther King Jr. said of the Emancipation Proclamation, “This momentous decree came as a great beacon light of hope to millions of Negro slaves who had been seared in the flames of withering injustice.”

Use an indirect quotation or paraphrase the text when you merely need to summarize key details of the text.

4.2.3. Colon, dash, semicolon, parentheses

Colon is used:

1. for a separation of two clauses when the sequential clause discloses the content of the principal clause or adds some details to it. Often a colon means “that is”.

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e.g. Tom’s work is unsatisfactory: his spelling is careless and writing is bad.

I have very little time to learn the language: my new job starts in five weeks.

2. for the introduction of direct speech:

e.g. Phyllis said: “Do you want me to play something for you?”

The speech of the character to himself/herself also requires

acolon:

e.g. One thought is whirling about in her head: Will I see him before he leaves?

Dash is used:

1. to separate the character’s speech from the narration. In this case double dash is necessary – before and after the quoted words:

e.g. But, why People? – and here the Master rose to his feet and spoke very loud and clear – why do I get all your blame?

2. to help interpret the structure and content of the sentence, interrupting it to attract the attention of the reader to most important information or to introduce some additional information: e.g. “Thorin! Balin! Oin! Gloin! Fili! Kili!” he cried as loud as he

could – it seemed a thin little noise in the wide darkness.

The students – they were each over the age of eighteen – lined up in the streets to vote for the presidential candidates.

Semicolon is used in the following cases:

1. The most common case of using a semicolon in compound sentences is the division of this sentence into coordinate clauses in the absence of a connector (see 3.1.):

e.g. We entered the hall; lights blazed in every corner; the festival had started.

I bought a ton of fruit at the grocery store today; apples, grapes and pears were all on sale.

A semicolon replaces a full stop if the writer wishes to narrow the gap between two closely linked sentences:

e.g. Call me tomorrow; I can give you an answer then. I am here; you are over there.

2. It is used with the coordinating connectors so, therefore, however, nevertheless, besides, then, otherwise, etc:

e.g. Do the work well; then I will pay you.

They must not tell the police; otherwise there will be awful trouble then.

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YULIA SERGEEVA, IRINA SYRESINA. A STUDENTS’ GUIDE TO ENGLISH SYNTAX: FROM WORD TO DISCOURSE

3. The semicolon is also placed in cases where the parts of the sentence that are separated by this sign are equally important, have, as a rule, one subject of the utterance, and are closely related in meaning to each other:

e.g. Lieutenant Fremont will not come to this house anymore; he will not be invited; and you will not see him again.

Parentheses (round brackets)

The introductory part of the sentence is enclosed in parentheses (brackets), when it contains additional information or explanation, is not related to other members of the sentence, and is relatively or completely independent. With its removal, the meaning of the sentence does not change much:

e.g. My sister (and she is past thirty) has only just got married. There are several books on the subject (see page 160).

He looked upon me as a dull and insignificant young man (which of course I was) and though he had always been civil he had never taken any notice of me.

Square brackets serve to further shift the focus of the narrative, they should be used only for additions or comments to the author's text. And also they are used if the bracketed word is not part of the original text. Square brackets are used when the explanation (interpretation) is a complement to the quote.

e.g. He [the police officer who was in charge] couldn’t prove they did it.

Square brackets are also used to indicate that certain portion of a quotation has been omitted:

e.g. Gore Vidal is quoted as saying “Andy Warhol is the only genius I’ve met […] with an IQ of 60.”

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Chapter IV. Basic rules of punctuation

EXERCISES TO CHAPTER IV

Exercise 1. Add commas as needed in the sentences below. On the line to the left of each sentence, write the number of the appropriate comma rule. If the sentence is correct as it is, write C on the line and refer to the appropriate rule in parentheses after the sentence.

_____ He left the scene of the accident and tried to forget that it had happened.

_____ Oil which is lighter than water rises to the surface.

_____ Madame de Stael was an attractive gracious lady.

_____ Nice is a word with many meanings and some of them are contradictory.

_____ The contractor testified that the house was completed and that the work had been done properly.

_____ Some people refuse to go to the zoo because of pity for creatures that must live in small cages.

_____ Taxicabs that are dirty are illegal in some cities.

_____ The closet contained worn clothes old shoes and dirty hats.

_____ The uninvited guest wore a dark blue tweed suit.

_____ After surviving this ordeal the trapper felt relieved.

_____ Mark Twain's early novels I believe stand the test of time.

_____ December 7 1941 will never be forgotten.

_____ The field was safe enough wasn't it?

_____ Write the editor of the Atlantic 8 Arlington Street Boston Massachusetts 02116.

_____ He replied “I have no idea what you mean.”

_____ After a good washing and grooming the pup looked like a new dog.

_____ Because of their opposition to institutions that force creatures to live in captivity some people refuse to go to the zoo.

_____ Men who are bald are frequently the ones who are the most authoritative on the subject of baldness.

_____ Vests which were once popular have been out of vogue for several years.

_____ As a celestial goddess she regulated the course of the heavenly bodies and controlled the alternating seasons.

_____ I hope that someday he will learn how to be polite.

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YULIA SERGEEVA, IRINA SYRESINA. A STUDENTS’ GUIDE TO ENGLISH SYNTAX: FROM WORD TO DISCOURSE

Exercise 2. Place commas wherever they are needed in the following sentences.

1.There was no question that John's painting a huge colorful and ugly mural was the worst entry in the art exhibit.

2.Werner von Braun Willy Ley and Edward Teller noted authorities in the field of rocket development have done much to guide the missile program of the United States.

3.Mr. Cready's ability to say the wrong thing at the wrong time is I believe amazing.

4.Running around the house the dog was abruptly stopped by a fence.

5.If the opposition should win our candidate would never have any political future.

6.Gracefully lightly and daintily the ballerina moved across the stage.

7.Glamour the woman's fashion magazine recently incorporated with Charm another fashion journal.

8.Joe was born on May 7 1955 and his best friend was born exactly two months later on July 7 1955.

9.Mr. and Mrs. Kwon my parents' best friends sat in front of us at the football game.

10.November 111918 the armistice ending World War I was signed.

Exercise 3

A. If the following sentences are correctly punctuated with introductory commas, mark a C on the line to the left of the sentence. If there is an error, put an X on the line and circle the error

____ 1.As the boat turned about a dozen dolphins began to follow it.

____ 2. Since we moved into town, our fuel bill has tripled.

____ 3. Having chosen nursing as a career Susan enrolled in many science courses.

____ 4. Usually, I have time to eat breakfast.

____ 5. From outside the twelve-mile fishing limits off the coast of Maine, a strange phenomenon has been reported.

____ 6. When he was in high school he was known only as an athlete.

____ 7. Before you decide what courses to take, you should consider the amount of work you are willing to do.

____ 8. Nevertheless I do not want to meet him.

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B. Add introductory commas where they are needed in the following sentences. Can you identify whether the introductory element, if any, is a clause, phrase, or word? If it is a phrase, what kind of phrase is it?

____ 1. To give Jane a good look at the university Mr. Benson drove up for the Day on Campus.

____ 2. Since the dog had started to run a way we had to scramble to catch him.

____ 3. Of course the movie that I had rushed to see didn't start on time.

____ 4. Her secondhand car was in excellent condition when she bought it.

____ 5. As I mentioned the rules can be broken occasionally.

____ 6. Having decided to eat only natural foods he had to give up all of his favorite junk food snacks.

____ 7. To estimate the costs he consulted a repairman by phone.

____ 8. To succeed in politics is not necessarily desirable.

____ 9. Making up his mind quickly Jared ordered lasagna while we were still reading the menu.

____ 10. However he tried to use the bottle opener it wouldn't work.

Exercise 4. Each of the following sentences needs either a comma or a semicolon. Put in the necessary punctuation mark.

1.Many companies make sugar-free soft drinks, which are flavored by synthetic chemicals the drinks usually contain only one or two calories per serving.

2.Mr. Leyland played the viola professionally for many years and he now conducts a community orchestra.

3.The crab grass was flourishing but the rest of the lawn, unfortunately, was dying.

4.The hill was covered with wildflowers it was a beautiful sight.

5.As I turned around, I heard a loud thump for the cat had upset the goldfish bowl.

6.The artist preferred to paint in oils he did not like watercolors.

7.The house was clean, the table set, and the porch light on everything was ready for the guests' arrival.

8.He looked carefully in the underbrush but he failed to notice the pair of green eyes staring at him.

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YULIA SERGEEVA, IRINA SYRESINA. A STUDENTS’ GUIDE TO ENGLISH SYNTAX: FROM WORD TO DISCOURSE

9. The foundations of the house had been poured but, to his disappointment, nothing else had been done because of the carpenters' strike.

10.The computer could perform millions of operations in a split second however, it could not think spontaneously.

11.I thought registration day would be tiring but I didn't know I'd have to stand in so many lines.

12.The dog, growling and snarling, snapped at me I was so frightened that I ran.

13.The snowstorm dumped twelve inches of snow on the interstate subsequently, the state police closed the road.

14.Professors are supposed to be absent-minded and I've seen plenty of evidence to support that claim since I've been in college.

15.The suspect said that he had never met the victim however, the detective knew that he was lying.

Exercise 5. Identify the nonessential words, phrases, or clauses in the following sentences and add the appropriate punctuation mark.

1.Patterson Tower the recently completed office building is a monument to concrete ugliness.

2.The movie that I wanted to see is no longer playing.

3.Each person who enters the contest must send in two box tops.

4.John decided nonetheless not to buy the car.

5.The Mississippi River which once flowed north into Hudson Bay flows south into the Gulf of Mexico.

6.Your cat watching the dog intently walked carefully away.

7.The cat that was watching the dog most intently walked carefully away.

8.TV commercials sometimes the most entertaining parts of a program are essentially flashy corporate propaganda.

9.The dam project which many in the government consider to be a sign of national strength will destroy hundreds of villages and vast areas of wildlife habitat along the river banks.

10.The free-jazz musician Sun Ra claimed to be from Saturn.

Exercise 6. In the following sentences put in quotation marks wherever they are needed, and underline words where italics are needed.

1. Mary is trying hard in school this semester, her father said.

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