Синтаксис английского языка от слова к тексту = A Students’ Guide to English Syntax from Word to Discourse. Учебное пособие

Chapter III. Composite sentence as a polypredicative construction

the game. 16. You should know the news: it is most important. 17. Veronica made a tremendous fuss because they were not given the best table at the restaurant. 18. They eventually found him when he was reading a newspaper in the library. 19. He risked to have lost his house when his company went bankrupt. 20. He found it hard when other people order him around.

Exercise 33. REVISION. Analyze the sentences. State their type: compound, complex, semi-composite. See the way the clauses are introduced. Comment on the type of connector. Name the verbal complex.

1. Why don’t you say where you were last night? 2. He didn’t actually say that but I understood he had implied it. 3. She was sitting motionless, her gaze fixed on the pianist’s hands. 4. I see the task is so complicated that you cannot carry it out. 5. The captain gave orders for the engines to be started. 6. The main thing is that all of us should work in close cooperation. 7. Although the twins were very much alike their parents had no difficulty in distinguishing them. 8. With all the windows lit brightly the house looked warm and welcoming. 9. The question was rather difficult to answer at once, and I asked for permission to think it over. 10. The search revealing nothing, the police left the house of the suspect. 11. We were all fast asleep and didn’t hear when she came. 12. We took a cab; we wished to be among the first who would greet the guests. 13. There was in fact nothing we had to wait for, and we got down to work. 14. Our efforts to start the car had failed, so we spent the night at a nearby village. 15. The young actor must be very talented since the producer has given him the leading part. 16. I consider it a personal favour that you have accepted my apologies. 17. My old man was a different man then, I could see it even though I was a kid. 18. She will stay with me until her mother comes, otherwise I will have to take her home by myself. 19. So far as I can, I’ll make things easy. 20. Before he turned the corner he looked back and saw the detective following him slowly. 21. Dave lived there like a rent-paying resident, his comings and goings being of small concern to the others. 22. Let us start before the sun rises; or else we’ll be stuck in a traffic jam. 23. Whatever she does, she does it well: she is a real Jack-of-all-trades! 24. The evening grew darker and, the roads being crossed by gates, it was not safe to drive.

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YULIA SERGEEVA, IRINA SYRESINA. A STUDENTS’ GUIDE TO ENGLISH SYNTAX: FROM WORD TO DISCOURSE

25. Byron was a great poet, nevertheless he was not recognized by the aristocratic and bourgeois society which claimed him an outcast. 26. Had he known it before he would have acted differently, but now it is too late for him to change anything. 27. She considered that the question was not worth answering, so she decided it would be more prudent to keep silent. 28. It is not very likely that he will change his opinion: he is as obstinate as a mule. 29. If he promised his help to you, you may be sure he’ll keep his word. 30. Where he stood it was not so light, and while he himself remained unseen, he would be able to see her as she passed by.

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CHAPTER IV

BASIC RULES OF PUNCTUATION

4.1.PUNCTUATION MARKS IN A SIMPLE SENTENCE

4.1.1.Comma

1.Use commas after introductory phrases or words that come before the main clause.

Common introductory phrases that should be followed by a comma include participial and infinitive phrases, absolute phrases, nonessential appositive phrases, and long prepositional phrases (over four words).

e.g. Having finished the test, he left the room. To get a seat, you'd better come early.

After the test but before lunch, I went jogging.

The sun radiating intense heat, we sought shelter in the cafe.

Common introductory words that should be followed by a comma include yes, however, well, also:

e.g. Well, perhaps he meant no harm.

Yes, the package should arrive tomorrow morning. However, you may not be satisfied with the results. Also, we noticed that the prices were going up.

2. Use a pair of commas in the middle of a sentence to set off phrases and words that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence. Use one comma before to indicate the beginning of the pause and one at the end to indicate the end of the pause you make while uttering such a sentence.

Here are some clues to help you decide whether the sentence element is essential:

a)If you leave out the phrase or the word, does the sentence still make sense?

b)Does the phrase or the word interrupt the flow of words in the original sentence?

c)If you move the element to a different position in the sentence, does the sentence still make sense?

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YULIA SERGEEVA, IRINA SYRESINA. A STUDENTS’ GUIDE TO ENGLISH SYNTAX: FROM WORD TO DISCOURSE

If you answer “yes” to one or more of these questions, then the element in question is nonessential and should be set off with commas.Here are some example sentences with nonessential elements: e.g. This restaurant has an exciting atmosphere. The food, on

the other hand, is rather bland.

My younger brother, a five-year old boy, is in the primary school.

I appreciate your hard work. In this case, however, you seem to have overexerted yourself.

Professor Benson, grinning from ear to ear, announced that the exam would be tomorrow.

Tom, the captain of the team, was injured in the game. She was, however, too tired to make the trip.

NB! Do not use commas to set off essential elements of the sentence.

e.g. The baby wearing a yellow swimsuit is my niece. The leg broken last month still hurts.

My brother John is a University student.

3.Use commas to separate three or more words or phrases, written in a series.

e.g. She decided to have potatoes, beans, and ice cream.

He walked off the stage, turned round, came back, and stared at the audience.

He asked for paper, a pencil, and a ruler.

The Constitution establishes the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government.

The candidate promised to lower taxes, protect the environment, reduce crime, and end unemployment.

4.Use commas to separate two or more coordinate adjectives that describe the same noun. Be sure never to add an extra comma between the final adjective and the noun itself or to use commas with non-coordinate adjectives.

Coordinate adjectives are adjectives with equal (“co”-ordinate) status in describing the noun; neither adjective is subordinate to the other. You can decide if two adjectives in a row are coordinate by asking the following questions:

a) Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written in reverse order?

b) Does the sentence make sense if the adjectives are written with and between them?

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If you answer yes to these questions, then the adjectives are coordinate and should be separated by a comma. Here are some examples of coordinate and non-coordinate adjectives:

He was a difficult, stubborn child (coordinate). They lived in a white frame house (non-coordinate). She often wore a gray wool shawl (non-coordinate). Your cousin has an easy, happy smile (coordinate).

The 1) relentless, 2) powerful, 3) summer sun beat down on them

(1–2 are coordinate; 2–3 are non-coordinate).

The 1) relentless, 2) powerful, 3) oppressive sun beat down on them

(both combinations 1–2 and 2–3 are coordinate).

5.Use a comma near the end of a sentence to separate contrasted coordinate elements or to indicate a distinct pause or shift.

e.g. He was merely ignorant, not stupid.

The chimpanzee seemed reflective, almost human. You're one of the senator's close friends, aren't you? The speaker seemed innocent, even gullible.

6.Use commas to set off phrases at the end of the sentence that refer to the beginning or middle of the sentence. Such phrases are free modifiers that can be placed anywhere in the sentence without causing confusion. If the placement of the modifier causes confusion, then it is not “free” and must remain “bound” to the word it modifies.

e.g. Nancy waved enthusiastically at the docking ship, laughing joyously (correct).

Lisa waved at Nancy, laughing joyously (incorrect. Who is laughing: Lisa or Nancy?)

Laughing joyously, Lisa waved at Nancy (correct).

Lisa waved at Nancy, who was laughing joyously (correct).

7.Use commas to set off words expressing sharp contrast:

e.g. I asked you to fill the document, not to destroy it. I’ll let you do it this time, but never again.

Children should be seen, but not heard.

8. Use commas to set off all geographical names, items in dates (except the month and day), addresses (except the street number and name), and titles in names.

e.g. Birmingham, Alabama, gets its name from Birmingham, England. July 22, 1959, was a momentous day in his life.

Who lives at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, DC? Rachel B. Lake, MD, will be the principal speaker.

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YULIA SERGEEVA, IRINA SYRESINA. A STUDENTS’ GUIDE TO ENGLISH SYNTAX: FROM WORD TO DISCOURSE

When you use just the month and the year, no comma is necessary after the month or year:

e.g. The average temperatures for July 1998 are the highest on record for that month.

9.Use commas to set off figures coming in a row: e.g. Since 1988, 12,000 new machines have been sold.

10.Use commas with direct address:

e.g. It is up to you, Jane, to finish or to continue. Henry, fetch another chair, please.

4.1.2. Point (full-stop), exclamation mark, question mark

The point is used:

1.at the end of the narrative:

I like chess.

2.after words of Latin origin, abbreviated to one letter: i.e. (Id est) = that is;

3.in the abbreviations:

M.A. = Master of Arts;

4. with the abbreviations of words:

Co. = Company;

5.after the initials:

H.E. Elliot;

6.after shortening the names of the months:

Feb. = February;

7.in decimal fractions, the integer is separated from the fraction by a period: 0.25.

Sentences expressing a request may end with a point, even if they

are used in the interrogative form:

e.g. Will you send me your latest article, please. May I take it.– Yes, please.

The indirect question also ends with a full-stop, not with a question mark:

e.g. Do you mind if I come a little later.

He hesitated whether to stay or leave at once.

NOTE 1. The point is not used in the following cases:

•After the symbols $,%.

•After ordinal numerals if they are written in abbreviation: 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th.

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•After the names of chemical elements if they are written in abbreviations: O (oxygen).

•At the end of the titles or headlines: in the names of literary works, essays, articles, etc.

NOTE 2. There are cases when it is possible to use abbreviations with and without a point:

•If the abbreviated word ends in the same letter as the original word:

Dr. or Dr = Doctor; Mr. or Mr = Mister.

•When you reduce the names of countries: USA or U.S.A.

•Reducing the names of organizations: BBC or B.B.C.

Exclamation mark.

The main purpose of the exclamation mark is to indicate increased

emotionality but this is not its unique function. It is used after interjections and it also shows that the speaker makes an effort to attract someone’s attention:

e.g. Hey, Jane!

You have the most beautiful hair I have ever seen! Oh! Aw! Oops! Alas! My Gosh!

Mr. James! I really could not! Do not jump, Cynthia!

What do you do!

I will not go home!

Question mark.

A question mark is placed at the end of interrogative sentences. In special, general, alternative and disjunctive questions it serves as an additional means of conveying the interrogative nature of these utterances, while the main means in the English language are lexical (question words) and syntactic (indirect word order). However, in the absence of such formal indicators, only the question mark at the end of the sentence gives it an interrogative character:

e.g. There were a few who did not call you nuts? I’ll see you at 9 pm?

In this situation, two or three question marks next to each other show that a person is not sure of something:

e.g. I think you said it would cost $ 10???

The question mark at the end of the elliptical sentence often serves to express surprise, perplexity:

e.g. Me? Write a graduation project on this theme?!

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YULIA SERGEEVA, IRINA SYRESINA. A STUDENTS’ GUIDE TO ENGLISH SYNTAX: FROM WORD TO DISCOURSE

After the question given in indirect speech and being,consequently, an object subordinate clause, a question mark is not used, since a full stop is required, as in Russian:

e.g. He asked where his red pencil was.

The official inquired if they had tickets for the return flight. I wonder why Mary doesn’t have a boyfriend still.

At the end of the indirect question a question mark is placed, if the main clause is interrogative:

e.g. Do you know when he will come?

Is there any information as to when the plane arrives?

NOTE. The question mark can be replaced by a full stop in stable expressions of politeness, since they are not really questions:

e.g. Could you please send me your catalogue.

4.1.3.Colon, dash, semicolon, parenthesis, quotation marks

Colon is used:

1. when listing something, before enumerable homogeneous terms preceded by a generalizing word:

e.g. My sister finds all school subjects easy: French, History, Maths. You may be required to bring many things: sleeping bags, pans,

utensils, and warm clothing.

NOTE. The colon is not used if the generic word is after the enumerated homogeneous terms. In this case use a dash.

e.g. The white sand, the warm water, the sparkling sun – this is what brought them to Hawaii.

2.to mark the introduction of any illustrative or explanatory material: quotations, lists, explanations:

e.g. I need an assistant to do the following: input data, write reports, and complete tax forms.

Remember the old saying: Be careful what you wish for.

The host made an announcement: “You are all staying for dinner.”

3.to separate and clarify the address written in one line:

e.g. John Jones: The Elms: Stroud Lane.

4. Sometimes this punctuation mark strengthens the meaning of the word that follows it:

e.g. After three weeks of deliberation, the jury finally reached a verdict: guilty.

Dash is used in the following cases:

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1.A dash helps to interpret the structure and the content of a sentence, interrupting it to attract the attention of the reader to most important information or additional information:

e.g. That is why I settled on burglary – especially when I remembered the existence of a Side-door.

Upon discovering the errors – all 124 of them – the publisher immediately recalled the books.

2.Dashes are also placed before the listed homogeneous parts or after them, if they are used with generalizing words:

e.g. We bought some new crockery – cups, plates, saucers – for our summer cottage.

Flour, sugar, baking powder, baking soda – we need to buy all these ingredients if we are going to make cookies today.

3.A dash serves to enter a dramatic or ironic pause, it helps to strengthen the emotional expressiveness of what has been said, to make a greater effect on the reader:

e.g. They have set the stage – for what?

After three weeks on set, the cast was fed up with his direction – or, rather, lack of direction.

4.An unexpected turn of thoughts can also be reflected with a dash:

e.g. What on earth – I mean, who are you?

5.In the middle of a sentence,a dash can indicate a pause in a speech caused by a speaker's excitement or a desire to find a suitable word:

e.g. “I – err – mean,” said Bill.

The dots are used in the same way to show the hesitation or excitement of the speaker:

e.g. I mean … my brothers, I am really glad to see you!

6. At the end of the sentence, a dash is an indicator of the incompleteness of the thought expressed:

e.g. I tried to call you, but –

Sam whispered to his friend, “We’re not supposed to be in this house after – .” “Be quietm,” Miles interrupted.

7. In order to emphasize that outside the sentence there is a lot that the reader should guess, the author sometimes, instead of dots, puts two dashes. In the works of contemporary English and American writers both types of graphical means are used extensively:

e.g. “Apparently you ladies don’t realize this is a private room,” he said, “and you’re interrupting a dinner party which isn’t – – ”

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YULIA SERGEEVA, IRINA SYRESINA. A STUDENTS’ GUIDE TO ENGLISH SYNTAX: FROM WORD TO DISCOURSE

NOTE. Though dashes and hyphens have a similar look, they serve different purposes. While dashes show interruptions in speech, hyphens connect parts of compound words. Graphically dashes are longer than hyphens.

e.g. I left a message for Josh – a mechanic who will fix my car for me (DASH).

We are looking for a dog-friendly hotel (HYPHEN).

Semicolon.

A semicolon is a period atop of a comma. Like commas, semicolons indicate an audible pause – slightly longer than a comma but shorter than a full stop.

A semicolon is used in a simple sentence that contains many commas to divide it into semantic groups:

e.g. The conference has people from Moscow, Idaho; Springfield, California; Alamo, Tennessee; and other places as well.

Parentheses (round brackets).

Parentheses are usually used to highlight explanations containing numbers, names or translations of foreign words:

e.g. Our highest score (10 goals to nil) came in our last match. Dave Bellamy (like his father,Peter Bellamy,last year) was victorious in

this year’s regional pie-making finals.

Quotation marks.

Quotation marks are placed at the level of the upper cut of the line. There are two kinds of quotation marks in English: single '…' and double “…”. Their use is similar in most cases, but be sure to use the same kind of quotation marks through the whole text.

Quotation marks in a simple sentence are used:

1.to highlight the names of books, newspapers, magazines, plays, films, etc. For the same purpose, italics can be used.

e.g. “The Prisoner of Azkaban” is my favourite book in the whole Harry Potter series.

She spent weeks trying to learn the dance to the song “Gangnam Style”.

“The Economist” and the BBC website handle the matter differently.

2.sometimes to distinguish the names of ships, hotels, houses: e.g. “The White House” is the official residence and the principal

workplace of the president of the United States.

3. to indicate the translation from a foreign language:

e.g. The shopkeeper usually greeted him with bonjour, “good day”.

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