Практический курс английского языка = Practical Course of English for Students of Economics. Учебное пособие для студентов экономических специальносте

however, in view of a labor-market phenomenon evident in the nursing profession. Thousands of nurses are leaving the field because of low pay; yet, in response to this shortage, wages have not been increased. Instead, a general reduction in nursing services has followed, and some institutions have hired nurses from outside the United States who will accept lower wages.

Thus far, the courts have generally been reluctant to address the issue of pay equity. However, in late 1983, federal district court judge Jack Tanner held that the state of Washington had violated the 1964 Civil Rights Act through inequitable treatment of its female employees and ordered the state to pay $838 million in raises and retroactive compensation to these women. This ruling was overturned in 1985, as an appeals court determined that an employer can follow prevailing market wages in setting salaries—even if these wages underpay women. In 1986, the state decided to avoid further appeals by settling the case for $482 million in damages. As part of the settlement, the worth of different jobs will now be measured in terms of skill, training, education, responsibility, and other factors.

In 1985, the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights took up the issue of comparable worth. By a vote of 5-2, the commissioners held that ‘comparable worth, as a theory of discrimination, or as a remedy for discrimination, is profoundly and irretrievably flawed.’ The chairman, Clarence M. Pendleton, Jr., inflamed the controversy by stating that comparable worth was the ‘looniest idea since Looney Tunes.’ Nevertheless, the majority of the Civil Rights Commission acknowledged that sex-based wage discrimination is a serious matter. As a remedy, they called for strict enforcement of the Equal Pay Act of 1963 and federal civil rights acts to prohibit employment discrimination against women.

Many public employers, including the states of New York and New Jersey, have developed voluntary plans to put pay equity policies into effect. In a key development in 1985, the city of Los Angeles embraced the idea of equal pay for city jobs ‘of comparable worth,’ a decision that Mayor Tom Bradley called a ‘historic step.’ The city accepted a union contract that gave 10 to 15 percent raises to 3900 clerks and librarians— most of them women—to bring their salaries to the level of those of maintenance workers, gardeners, and other city workers in male-domi- nated classifications. Mayor Bradley commented that, through the city’s action, ‘we will send a message to all cities across this country’

The issue of pay equity is just beginning to gain pub attention. In a 2003 national survey, only one-fourth of respondents stated that they had heard a ‘fair amount’ or a ‘great deal’ about pay equity or comparable worth. Most Americans believe that women and men should be

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paid equally for jobs of comparable worth. At the same time, two-thirds of respondents in the survey agreed that it is too difficult—and therefore unfair—to compare and evaluate jobs that are quite different (such as secretary and electrician) to see if they deserve similar compensation. In any event, the American people will surely be hearing much more about this controversial concept. According to a survey released by the National Committee on Pay Equity, more than 1500 local governments and school districts in 24 states have taken steps to address the issue of pay equity.

Text 5

Equality for Women – Sweden Shows How

It is easy to pay lip service to the idea of equality for women but in practice this is often difficult to achieve. People’s attitudes do not change overnight, and it takes time, as well as education and example, to remove prejudice. In many countries women still have great difficulty entering such professions as medicine and law, while the idea of woman truckdriver or race-horse jockey would be unthinkable.

In Sweden, however, equality of the sexes has been carried far. One reason for this is that there has been a shortage of labor in the country. Unemployment has been low, the population has remained static, so new jobs have had to be filled by women. Nowadays women comprise about 40 per cent of the working population – a high percentage compared with other countries. A second reason is that positive measures, in the form of government action, education and propaganda, have been used to bring about greater equality for women.

Campaigners for women’s rights argued convincingly that there were two labour markets in Sweden, one for men and one for women. They stressed that women were mainly gathered in the office, carrying and service sectors of the economy.

Those sympathetic to women’s rights considered that the problem was to persuade more women to work and, more specifically, to get women to undertake traditionally masculine jobs.

The first significant step in Sweden was taken when women priests were accepted in the official Lutheran church. Some years later another step was taken. The principle of equal pay was recognized in a binding agreement between trade unions and employers.

Then separate taxation for a husband and wife was allowed. This created an incentive for women to go out to work. A scheme of ‘parents’ insurance was brought in. During the first seven months after the birth of a child, either parent could stay away from work, and still collect about 90 per cent of normal pay. The idea was to encourage husbands to take part

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of this time off. They would then develop closer contact with their children, so it was thought, and take a more active role in child care later on. Another related benefit was that parents of young children could take off ten days each year to look after them if they were sick.

The most far-reaching measures were directed at tempting, even pushing, women into traditionally masculine jobs. The purpose of this is not only to produce more female lumberjacks, for example, but also more male textile workers; also, employers who provide in-service training for workers in jobs normally held by the opposite sex get a subsidy towards the cost of their wages. Local employment offices throughout the country have taken on extra staff specializing in the problems of women’s employment. Part of their brief is to ‘prevail upon employers and job seekers to take an unconventional attitude’ about appropriate work for their sex.

One programme in particular has attracted international interest. A pilot scheme was introduced, in six of Sweden’s twenty-four countries, to persuade women to take on ‘masculine’ jobs. Areas were chosen where there was a shortage of labour and many unemployed women. Invitations were sent out to all women in these areas, and those interested in working were invited to attend an information day at chosen companies. They were thus given an opportunity to study the manufacturing processes of the local industries. Next, they registered for a four-week course consisting of practical orientation in a certain type of work. At the end of this period many stayed on and were hired by the company.

This experimental programme proved highly successful. It was extended to other counties. It produced women painters, electricians’ apprentices, lathe operators, even foundry workers.

Other measures are in the pipeline. It has been suggested that widows’ pensions should be abolished. Alimony payments have been reduced, on the principle that a woman ought to go out and support herself rather than depend on her former husband.

Of course, some problems have arisen. When a wife works a morning shift and her husband an afternoon shift, then they may only really see each other at weekends. Also, many husbands are still reluctant to do their share of household chores even though their wives have full-time jobs. Life can be tough in Sweden for the working woman.

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PART I

Unit 1

M A N A G E M E N T

Text 1

Douglas McGregor – Theory X & Theory Y

In 1960 Douglas McGregor defined contrasting assumptions about the nature of humans in the work place. These assumptions are the basis of Theory X and Theory Y.

Theory X. Theory X basically holds the belief that people do not like work and that some kind of direct pressure and control must be exerted to get them to work effectively. These people require a rigidly managed environment, usually requiring threats of disciplinary action as a primary source of motivation. It is also held that employees will only respond to monetary rewards as an incentive to perform above the level of that which is expected. From a management point of view, autocratic (Theory X) managers like to retain most of their authority. They make decisions on their own and inform the workers, assuming that they will carry out the instructions. Autocratic managers are often called “authoritative” for this reason; they act as “authorities”. This type of managers is highly task oriented, placing a great deal of concern towards getting the job done, with little concern about workers’ attitudes towards manager’s decision. This show that autocratic managers lose ground in the work place, making way for leaders who share more authority and decision making with other members of the group.

Theory Y. A more popular view of the relationship found in the work place between managers and workers, is explained in the concepts of Theory Y. This theory assumes that people are creative and eager to work. Workers tend to desire more responsibility than Theory X workers, and have strong desires to participate in the decision making process. Theory Y workers are comfortable in a working environment which allows creativity and the opportunity to become personally involved in organizational planning. Theory Y workers are emphasizes to be far more prevalent in the work place than are Theory X workers. For instance, it is pointed out that ingenuity, creativity and imagination are increasingly present throughout the ranks of the working population These people not only accept responsibility, but actively seek increased authority.

William Ouchi – Theory Z. Another theory which has emerged, and deals with the way in which workers are perceived by managers, as well

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as how managers are perceived by workers, is William Ouchi’s Theory Z. Often referred to as the “Japanese” management style, Theory Z offers the notion of a hybrid management style which is a combination of a strict American management style (Theory A) and a strict Japanese management style (Theory J). This theory speaks of an organizational culture which mirrors the Japanese culture in which workers are more participative, and capable of performing many and varied tasks. Theory Z emphasizes thing such as job rotation, broadening of skills, generalization versus specialization, and the need for continuous training of workers.

Much like McGregor’s theories, Ouchi’s Theory Z makes certain assumptions about workers. Some of the assumptions about workers under this theory include the notion that workers tend to want to build co-op- erative and intimate working relationships with those they work for and with, as well as the people that work for them. Also Theory Z workers have a high need to be supported by the company, and highly value a working environment in which such things as family, cultures add traditions, and social institutions are regarded as equally important as the work itself. Finally, Theory Z workers, it is assumed, can be trusted to do their jobs to their utmost ability, so long as management can be trusted to support them and look out for their wellbeing.

Text 2

Managing Conflict

Conflict is an inevitable by-product of interpersonal dealings. This is particularly true of work groups because they generally are expediently assembled collections of individuals with differing backgrounds, perceptions, attitudes and values. Conflict, as defined by an expert in the field, “refers to all kinds of opposition or antagonistic interaction. It is based on scarcity of power, resources or social position, and differing value structures”. But one should be careful not to assume that all conflict is bad. Conflict has two faces, one functional (or constructive) and the other dysfunctional (or destructive). “Constructive conflict is both valuable and necessary. Without conflict, there would be few new challenges; there would be no stimulation to think through ideas; organizations would be only apathetic and stagnant”.

Conflict triggers. A conflict trigger is a circumstance that increases the chances of intergroup or interpersonal conflict. It can stimulate either functional or dysfunctional conflict. As long as a conflict trigger appears to stimulate constructive conflict, it can be allowed to continue. But as soon as the symptoms of destructive conflict become apparent,

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steps should be taken to remove or correct the offending conflict trigger. Major conflict triggers include: ambiguous overlapping jurisdictions; competition for scarce resources; communication breakdowns; time pressure; unreasonable standards, rules. Policies, or procedures; personality clashes; status differentials; unrealized expectations.

Resolving conflict. Even the best managers sometimes find themselves in the middle of dysfunctional conflict, whether it is due to inattention or to circumstances beyond their control. In these situations, one or more of the following conflict resolution techniques may be appropriate.

Problem solving. When conflicting parties take the time to identify and correct the source of their conflict, they are engaging in problem solving. This approach is based on the assumption that causes must be rooted out and attacked if anything is really to change. The major shortcoming of the problem-solving approach is that it takes time, but the investment of extra time can pay off handsomely when the problem is corrected instead of ignored.

Superordinate goals. “Superordinate goals are highly valued, unattainable by any one group (or individual) alone, and commonly sought”. When a manager relies on superordinate goals to resolve dysfunctional conflict, he or she brings the conflicting parties together and, in effect says, “Look, we’re all in this together. Let’s forget our differences so we can get the job done”. Although this technique often works in the short run, the underlying problem totally crops up later to cause friction once again.

Compromise. This technique generally appeals to those living in a democracy. Proponents of this approach claim that everybody wins because it is based on negotiation, or give, or take. But everyone loses something in a compromise. Something must be given up if anything is to be gained. Like problem solving, compromise takes time that management may or may not be able to afford. But, unlike problem solving, the problem is worked around rather than solved.

Forcing. Sometimes, especially when time is important, management must simply step into a conflict and order the conflicting parties to handle the situation in a certain manner. Reliance on formal authority and power of superior position are at the heart of forcing. Forcing does not resolve the personal conflict and, in fact, may serve to compound it by hurting feelings and/or fostering resentment and mistrust.

Smoothing. A manager who relies on smoothing, says to the conflicting parties something like “Settle down. Don’t rock the boat. Things will work out themselves”. This approach may tone down conflict in the short run, but it doesn’t solve the underlying problem. As with the each other conflict resolution techniques, smoothing has its place. It can be

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useful when management is attempting to hold things together until a critical project is completed or when there is no time for problem solving or compromise and forcing is deemed inappropriate.

Text 3

Selecting Employees

Selection is the process of collecting systematic information about applicants and using that information to decide which applicant to hire. The major purpose of various devices of selection – application form, interviews, testing, and reference checking – is to gather information about the applicants’ job related skills. A very important principle of the questions should reflect the activities of the job to be filled.

The application. Traditional application forms ask information about educational and work history, avocational interests, and honors. However, such forms have limitations. In the majority of cases, they have limited space, so the applicant can supply only basic information such as the manes of schools attended, major, dated of attendance, and previous job titles and dates of employment. A second limitation is that a large percentage of respondents falsify the information that they report. Such falsification is easy because often all that is requested is brief information such as job title and major.

One device that has been used successfully is a training and experience form, which presents a small number, for example five, of the important tasks of the job. The form asks applicants to indicate whether they have ever performed or been trained in each of the activities. If they answer yes, they are then asked to describe briefly how to perform the activity.

The interview. The interview is, perhaps, the most often used selection device. The purpose of the interview is to allow at least one member of the organization to interact with each applicant and assess that applicant’s job-related KSAs (key selection areas). Two aspects of the interview format are especially important. First, the interview should be structured, meaning that the interviewer asks the same set of job-related questions of each candidate. This ensures that the interviewer gathers full information from each applicant, and it makes comparisons among applicants easier because they all are evaluated on the same characteristics. The second aspect of the format is the nature of the questions. Questions about job-related behaviors have proven to be quite useful. The idea behind them is that gathering information about behaviors that are performed on the job is useful in making selection decision. The interviewer must evaluate the accuracy and completeness of the response.

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Tests. Many organizations use tests during the selection process to identify those applicants who have the specific KSAs needed for the available position. Human resource managers can use many kinds of tests. The most common are the following:

Ability tests are paper-and-pencil quizzes, usually multiple choice, that measure an applicant’s knowledge of specific work content or cognitive ability.

Performance or work-sample tests verify an applicant’s ability to perform actual job behaviors identified from a job analysis. Perhaps the oldest example is a typing test.

Assessment center tests are programs that typically simulate managerial tasks. One of the most often used simulations is the In-Basket, which simulates 20 to 30 office memos, complete with an organizational chart and relevant company policy statement.

Integrity tests measure an applicant’s attitudes and opinions about dysfunctional behaviors such as theft, sabotage, physical abuse, and substance abuse. Companies usually use paper-and-pencil, multiple choice tests that ask about the applicant’s thoughts and reactions to a number of illegal or unethical situations.

Personality inventories measure the thoughts, feeling and behavior that define an individual and determine that person’s pattern of interaction with the environment. Two general types of personality tests have been used in selection. One is a multiple-choice questionnaire. The second type of personality tests is the projective test, which asks an applicant to write a story about ambiguous pictures or to finish partially completed sentences.

Physical examinations test individuals for placement in manually and physically demanding jobs.

Reference checks. A company considering hiring a particular applicant often contacts previous employers or others who know him or her well to verify the information previously obtained. Reference checks can be handled in three ways. The first, and most often used, is through telephone conversations, in which previous supervisors of the applicant are contacted. Other ways include in-person visits and mail inquiries. The organization may also obtain reference information from investigative agencies, credit bureaus, and public documents.

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Unit 2

M A R K E T I N G

Text 1

Why Segment Markets?

Henry Ford made history with his decision to mass produce the Model T Ford ad a very low price for the mass market. His famous quip, “The can have any color it wants, as long as it’s black!” clearly illustrated his marketing philosophy. A wise choice at the time, but for long. Other manufacturers, notably General Motors, began producing cars in a variety of price levels, styles, brands and colors, believing that the auto market was becoming bigger and more affluent – a segmented market. They were right. GM built a market lead over Ford that it has never relinquished.

Today, most firms pursue a market segmentation strategy. In fact, it is probably safe to say that market segmentation is one of the most visible features of the affluent society. As people increase their wealth and leisure time, they become able to enjoy a much greater variety of life-styles, and the many different products and services that go with them.

In short, market segmentation is popular because it often plays off in higher sales and profits. By designing specific products for different customer groups, the firm can more closely match the needs of its different target customers. This offers the firm some protection from competitors who are not as closely matched to these segments’ needs. Market segmentation bring other related benefits, too. It keeps the firm tuned more closely to the market and alert to new opportunities. And it encourages higher management efficiency in using the firms resources.

Logically, the concept of a market segment can be extended to the needs of individual customers or firms. In fact, the term “custom-made” refers to just this idea – creating a product or service to the specification of a particular customer. Since customized products and services are more costly to produce than standardized products, the total market that can afford to be individually served is very small. Even segmenting to larger groups can be extremely expensive.

Firms also must guard against creating too many different products or excessive or frivolous product features beyond those desired by enough customers.

Whether markets are uniform or segmented, they usually are too large for a single organization to serve effectively with its limited resources. Therefore firms select certain target markets from the segments it has

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identified. Marketing mix strategies are then developed to match these target market needs and also the objectives and resources of the firm.

Text 2

Organising For Nondomestic Marketing

Two dimensions of organizing are important to the international marketing manager. The first concerns the way the firm is organized for entry into its nondomestic markets and the second deals with how the firm is organized internally to achieve its marketing objectives. In domestic marketing the entry question does not exist and one is immediately concerned with the structuring of the marketing activities within the firm’s organizational chart.

Entry alternatives. Basically, firms may enter an overseas market with varying degrees of decision-making control over their total operations, including their marketing efforts. The firm that enters an overseas market by establishing a wholly owned subsidiary or by having over 50% equity obviously has the greater degree of decision-making control.

When a firm is exporting to a market, it potentially has no say on how its product or service is to be marketed, although in practice it can discontinue exporting through an uncooperative middleman. Similarly, by licensing the production of its product, the firm has only those decisionmaking controls that are established in the original agreement. These generally relate to quality control and the territory covered. In either instance (exporting or licensing), the international marketing manager has limited control over the marketing techniques used in overseas market.

Many firms have tended to prefer entry through the use of wholly owned subsidiaries. This entry method provides a maximum operational control and the greatest protection to a firm’s technology and the quality of product sold under its brand name. However, it also entails the greatest risk.

In more recent years, the trend has been toward entry through a joint venture agreement. Among the joint venture’s advantages is the fact that it permits sharing the risk while still obtaining a measure of control and participating in the profits in the market. Further, since a joint venture agreement if often made with an existing firm in the overseas market, the joint venture may have the additional benefits of reducing competition and gaining local market expertise and contacts. An even more recent development is the establishment of country-company partnerships.

An even more compelling factor favoring a joint venture is the foreign investment regulations that now exist in a number of countries. The market in which the firm wishes to enter may simply require the estab-

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