Английский язык. Практикум по чтению научно-популярных текстов

3. The Object (Дополнение)

The student denies failing the experiment. Студент отрицает, что не справился с опытом.

He insisted on being listened to at the conference (a prepositional object). Он настоял на том, чтобы его заслушали на конференции.

4. The Attribute (Определение)

He was born with the gift of winning hearts. Он родился с даром покорять сердца.

The professor saw no harm in being asked a few questions. Профессор не видел никакого вреда в том, чтобы ему задали несколько вопросов.

5. The Adverbial Modifier (Обстоятельство)

The language develops slowly through a number of epochs by modifying its vocabulary and grammar. Язык развивается медленно на протяжении ряда эпох, изменяя свой словарь и грамматику.

After reading hundreds of books in physics, the student came across one that made him think himself. После того как студент прочитал сотни книг по физике, он натолкнулся на одну, которая заставила его задуматься.

The Complexes with the Gerund

Like all the verbals (неличные формы глагола) the gerund can form constructions in which the verbal element expressed by the gerund is in predicative relation to the nominal element expressed by a noun or a pronoun. The nominal element of the construction can be expressed in different ways:

a)by a noun (существительное) in the genitive case (родительный падеж) or by a possessive pronoun (притяжательное местоимение), by a pronoun which has no case distinctions, such as all, this, that, both, something

E.g.: The professor is interested in our (my, his, her, their, your, Oleg’s) completing the research. Профессор интересуется, как мы (я, он, она, они, вы, Олег) закончим исследование. He insisted on both of the students coming on time. Он настаивал на том, чтобы оба студента пришли вовремя.

b)by the noun in the common case (общий падеж)

E.g.: The professor is interested in students completing the research. Профессор интересуется, как студенты закончат исследование. They objected to the conference being held in May. Они были против того, чтобы конференцию проводили в мае.

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APPENDIX II

GLOSSARY

Allotropes are different structural modifications of one and the same element. For example, diamond and graphite are two allotropes of carbon.

Atom is the smallest unit of an element. It is a basic unit of matter consisting of a dense, central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons.

Band gap (also called energy gap) refers to the energy difference (in electron volts) between the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band which is found in insulators and semiconductors.

Bottom-Up Approach (in nanotechnology) means building of larger objects from smaller building blocks.

Bulk technology is the technology in which atoms and molecules are manipulated in bulk, rather than individually.

Charge is a source of energy.

Circuit is a closed path for an electric current, an apparatus for using an electric current.

Cluster is a small group of atoms or molecules.

Conduction band is the range of electron energies, higher than that of the valence band, sufficient to free an electron from binding with its individual atom and allow it to move freely within the atomic lattice of the material.

Conductor is a substance that conducts heat or an electric current (copper, aluminum, etc.).

Crystal is a transparent, natural substance; the definite and regular shape is formed naturally by the molecules of certain substances.

Current is a flow of electricity through something or along a wire or a cable.

Dimension of a space or an object is informally defined as the minimum number of coordinates needed to specify each point within it.

Doping is the process of intentionally introducing impurities into an extremely pure (also classified as intrinsic) semiconductor to change its electrical properties.

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Electricity is a supply of an electric current (for heating, lighting, etc.)

Electron is a particle of matter, smaller than an atom, having a negative electric charge. An electron has a mass that is approximately 1836 times less than that of the proton.

Electron gun (also called electron emitter) is an electrical component that produces an electron beam that has a precise kinetic energy and is most often used in televisions and monitors which use cathode ray tube technology, as well as in other instruments, such as electron microscopes and particle accelerators.

Fullerene is any molecule composed entirely of carbon (or its allotropes) in the form of a hollow sphere, an ellipsoid, or a tube.

Hole is a hollow place in a solid body.

Insulator (also called dielectric) is a material that resists the flow of an electric current. It has atoms with tightly bonded valence electrons (paper, glass, rubber, mica, etc.).

Matter refers to the substance that all objects are made of.

Molecule is the smallest unit, usually a group of atoms.

Nanocrystals are any nanomaterial with at least one dimension less or equal to 100 nm, also known as nanoscale semiconductor crystals.

Nanomaterials include subfields which develop or study materials having unique properties arising from their nanoscale dimensions. They can be subdivided into nanoparticles, nanofilms and nanocomposites.

Nanoparticles are sized between 1 and 100 nanometers. Nanoparticles may or may not exhibit size-related properties that differ significantly from those observed in fine particles or bulk materials.

Nanopowders are agglomerates of ultrafine particles or nanoparticles.

Nanorods (also called carbon nanorods) are formed from multi-wall carbon nanotubes. It is another nanoscale material with unique and promising physical properties, such that may yield improvements in highdensity data storage, and allow for cheaper flexible solar cells.

Nanoscale is usually defined as smaller than one tenth of a micrometer in at least one dimension, though this term is sometimes also used for materials smaller than one micrometer.

Nanotechnology is the science of controlling matter on an atomic and molecular scale. It is a manufacturing technology able to inexpensively

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fabricate most structures consistent with natural law, and to do so with molecular precision.

Nanotube is a one dimensional fullerene with a cylindrical shape. Carbon nanotubes act as conductors or semiconductors. Nanotubes are useful as molecular components for nanotechnology.

Neutrinos are elementary particles that often travel close to the speed of light. They are electrically neutral, able to pass through ordinary matter almost undisturbed and are thus extremely difficult to detect.

Neutron is a particle carrying no electric charge. It is of about the same mass as a proton, forming part of the nucleus of an atom.

Nucleus is a central part of an atom, consisting of protons and neutrons.

Particle is a very small bit (small thing of anything).

Particle accelerator (also called atom smasher) is a device that uses electric fields to propel ions or charged subatomic particles to high speeds and to contain them in well-defined beams.

Proton is a positively charged particle, forming part of an atomic nucleus.

Semiconductor is a material that has an electrical resistivity between that of a conductor and an insulator. Semiconductor materials are used in radio, computers, telephones, digital integrated circuits and in many other devices.

Semi-insulator has an electrical conductivity nearer to that of electrical insulators. An example of a common semi-insulator is gallium arsenide.

Substance is a particular kind of matter.

Top Down Approach (in nanotechnology) means carving and fabricating small materials and components by using larger objects such as our hands, tools and lasers.

Valence band is the highest range of electron energies where electrons are normally present at absolute zero temperature. The valence band is located below the conduction band, separated from it in insulators and semiconductors by a band gap.

Quantum Dots are nanometer-sized semiconductor crystals, or electrostatically confined electrons.

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APPENDIX III

SOME GREAT NAMES IN PHYSICS

Sir Isaac Newton (January 4, 1643 – March 31, 1727) was an English physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian who is perceived and considered by a substantial number of scholars and the general public as one of the most influential men in history. His 1687 publication “The Principia” is considered to be among the most influential books in the history of science, laying the groundwork for most of classical mechanics. In this work, Newton described

the universal gravitation and three laws of motion which dominated the scientific view of the physical universe for the next three centuries. These laws describe the relationship between the forces acting on a body and the motion of that body. In mechanics, Newton enunciated the conservation principles of momentum and angular momentum. In optics, he built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a theory of colour based on the observation that a prism decomposes white light into many colours that form the visible spectrum. In mathematics, Newton shares the credit with Gottfried Leibniz for the development of the differential and integral calculus.

Ernest Rutherford, 1st Baron Rutherford of Nelson (August 30, 1871 – October 19, 1937) was a New Zealand chemist and physicist who became known as the father of nuclear physics. He discovered that atoms have their positive charge concentrated in a very small nucleus, and thereby pioneered the Rutherford model, or planetary, model of the atom, through his discovery and interpretation of Rutherford scattering in his gold foil experiment. He was awarded the Nobel Prize

in Chemistry in 1908. He is widely credited as splitting the atom in 1917 and leading the first experiment to “split the nucleus” in a controlled manner by two students under his supervising, John Cockcroft and Ernest Walton in 1932.

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Albert Einstein [′ælbərt ′a nsta n] (March 14, 1879 – April 18, 1955) was a German theoretical physicist. His many contributions to physics include the theory of relativity, which explains gravitation as distortion of the structure of spacetime by matter, affecting the inertial motion of other matter, the founding of relativistic cosmology, the first post-Newtonian expansion, explaining the perihelion advance of Mercury, prediction of the deflection of light by gravity and

gravitational lensing, the first fluctuation dissipation theorem which explained the Brownian movement of molecules. He founded the photon theory, the quantum theory of atomic motion in solids, the zero-point energy concept and the quantum theory of a monatomic gas which predicted the Bose-Einstein condensation. In 1921 he received the Nobel Prize in Physics “for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect”. Einstein published more than 300 scientific and over 150 non-scientific works. He is often regarded as the father of modern physics. The chemical element 99, einsteinium, was named after him in August 1955, four months after Einstein’s death. In 1999, Albert Einstein was named the Person of the Century by Time magazine.

Abram Fedorovich Ioffe (October 29, 1880 – October 14, 1960) was a prominent Soviet/Russian physicist. He was rewarded with the Stalin Prize in 1942, the Lenin Prize in 1960 (posthumously), Hero of Socialist Labor in 1955. In the course of his career, Ioffe researched electromagnetism, radiology, features of crystals, physics of high impact, thermoelectricity,

photoelectricity. He was a leading force in building new research laboratories for radioactivity, superconductivity, and nuclear physics. Many of these laboratories later became independent institutes. Ioffe’s pedagogical efforts resulted in the Soviet school of physics, his students include Aleksandr Aleksandrov, Yakov Dorfman, Pyotr Kapitsa, Isaak Kikoin, Igor Kurchatov, Yakov Frenkel, Nikolay Semyonov, Lev Artsimovich and others.

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Niels Henrik David Bohr (October 7, 1885 – November 18, 1962) was a Danish physicist who made fundamental contributions to understanding the atomic structure and quantum mechanics, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services in the investigation of the structure of atoms and of the radiation emanating from them" in 1922. The most important Bohr’s contributions to physics: the Bohr model of the atom, the theory is that electrons travel in discrete orbits around

the atom’s nucleus; the shell model of the atom, where the chemical properties of an element are determined by the electrons in the outermost orbit. He identified the isotope of uranium that was responsible for slowneutron fission – 235U. Bohr has been described as one of the most influential physicists of the 20th century.

Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa (July 8, 1894 – April 8, 1984) was an innovative Soviet/Russian physicist and a Nobel laureate in Physics for “basic inventions and discoveries in the area of low-temperature physics”. Pyotr Kapitsa was born in the city of Kronstadt and graduated from the Petrograd Polytechnical Institute in 1918. He worked with Ernest Rutherford in the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge for over ten years. He was made a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1929

and was the first director (1930 – 1934) of the Mond Laboratory in Cambridge. In the 1920s he originated techniques for creating ultrastrong magnetic fields by injecting a high current for brief periods into specially constructed air-core electromagnets. In 1928 he discovered the linear dependence of resistivity on a magnetic field for various metals in very strong magnetic fields. Kapitsa carried out a series of experiments to study liquid helium, leading to the discovery in 1937 of its superfluidity. In 1939 he developed a new method for liquefaction of air with a lowpressure cycle using a special high-efficiency expansion turbine. The scientist invented high power microwave generators (1950 – 1955).

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Lev Davidovich Landau (January 22, 1908 – April 1, 1968) was a prominent Soviet/Russian physicist who made fundamental contributions to many areas of theoretical physics. His accomplishments include the co-discovery of the density matrix method in quantum mechanics, the quantum mechanical theory of diamagnetism, the theory of superfluidity, the theory of second order phase transitions, the Ginzburg-Landau theory of superconductivity, the explanation of Landau

damping in plasma physics, the Landau pole in quantum electrodynamics, and the two-component theory of neutrinos. He received the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physics for his development of a mathematical theory of superfluidity that accounts for the properties of liquid helium II at a temperature below 2.17 K (−270.98 °C). Apart from his theoretical accomplishments, Landau was the principal founder of a great tradition of theoretical physics in Kharkov, Soviet Union (now Kharkiv, Ukraine), sometimes referred to as the "Landau school". He was the head of the Theoretical Division at the Institute for Physical Problems from 1937 until 1962 when, as a result of a car accident, he suffered injuries from which he was never back to science. His students included Lev Pitaevskii, Alexei Abrikosov, Arkady Levanyuk, Evgeny Lifshitz, Lev Gorjkov, Isaak Khalatnikov, Boris L. Ioffe and Isaak Pomeranchuk. Landau developed a comprehensive exam called the "Theoretical Minimum" which students were expected to pass before admission to the school. The exam covered all aspects of theoretical physics, and between 1943 and 1961 only 43 candidates passed. In this way his students became proper physicists, rather than narrow specialists.

Richard Phillips Feynman [′fa nmən] (May

11, 1918 – February 15, 1988) was an American physicist known for the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics, the theory of quantum electrodynamics and the physics of the superfluidity of supercooled liquid helium, as well as work in particle physics (he proposed the parton model). For his contributions to the development of quantum electrodynamics, Feynman received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1965, together with

Julian Schwinger and Sin-Itiro Tomonaga. Feynman developed a widely

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used pictorial representation scheme for the mathematical expressions governing the behavior of subatomic particles, which later became known as Feynman diagrams. During his lifetime and after his death, Feynman became one of the most publicly known scientists in the world. In addition to his work in theoretical physics, Feynman has been credited with pioneering the field of quantum computing, and introducing the concept of nanotechnology (creation of devices at the molecular scale). Feynman was a keen popularizer of physics in both his books and lectures, notably a 1959 talk on top-down nanotechnology called “There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom”, and “The Feynman Lectures on Physics”.

Norio Taniguchi (May 27, 1912 – November 15, 1999) was a professor of Tokyo Science University. He defined the term nanotechnology in 1974 to describe semiconductor processes such as thin film deposition and ion beam milling exhibiting characteristic control on the order of a nanometer. He admitted that nanotechnology mainly consists of the processing of separation, consolidation, and deformation of materials by one atom or one molecule. Taniguchi started his research on abrasive mechanisms of high

precision machining of hard and brittle materials. At Tokyo Science University, he went on to pioneer the application of energy beam techniques to ultra precision materials processing; these included electro discharge, microwave, electron beam, photon (laser) and ion beams. Professor Taniguchi was the recipient of Euspen's 1st Lifetime Achievement Award which was presented in Bremen, May 1999.

Kim Eric Drexler (April 25, 1955) is an American engineer best known for popularizing the potential of molecular nanotechnology (MNT), from the 1970s and 1980s. Kim Eric Drexler was very strongly influenced by ideas on limits to growth in the early 1970s. In 1979, Drexler came across Richard Feynman's provocative 1959 talk “There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom” (“Там внизу много места”). The term nanotechnology was used by Drexler in his the 1986 book “Engines

of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology” to describe what later

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became known as molecular nanotechnology. In that book, he proposed the idea of a nanoscale “assembler” (“сборщик”) which would be able to build a copy of itself and of other items of arbitrary complexity. He also first published the term “grey goo” (“серая слизь”) to describe what might happen if a hypothetical self-replicating molecular nanotechnology went out of control.

Vitaly Lazarevich Ginzburg (October 4, 1916 – November 8, 2009) was a Soviet/Russian theoretical physicist, astrophysicist, a Nobel laureate, a member of the Russian Academy of Sciences and one of the fathers of Soviet hydrogen bomb. He was the successor to Igor Tamm as head of the Department of Theoretical Physics of the Academy's physics institute (FIAN). Among his achievements are a partially phenomenological theory of superconductivity, the Ginzburg-Landau theory,

developed with Landau in 1950; the theory of electromagnetic wave propagation in plasmas (for example, in the ionosphere); and a theory of the origin of cosmic radiation. President of Russia Dmitry Medvedev, in his letter of condolences, described Ginzburg as a “top physicist of our time whose discoveries had a huge impact on the development of national and world science.”

Alexei Alexeyevich Abrikosov (June 25, 1928) is a Soviet/Russian theoretical physicist whose main contributions are in the field of condensed matter physics. He graduated from Moscow Institute of Steel and Alloys (MISA) in 1948. He received his Ph.D. in 1951 for the theory of thermal diffusion in plasmas under supervising of L.D. Landau. In 1952, Abrikosov discovered the way in which a magnetic flux can penetrate a superconductor. The phenomenon is known as type-II superconductivity, and the accompanying

arrangement of magnetic flux lines (распределение линий магнитного потока) is called the Abrikosov vortex lattice (вихревая решётка). In 1955 Abrikosov received his Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences degree for a thesis on quantum electrodynamics at high energies. In the period of 1976–1991 he headed the Department of Theoretical

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