Английский язык. Практикум по чтению научно-популярных текстов

Ex. 37. Read and translate the chains of words.

Compare – compared – comparison; apply – applied – application; solve – dissolve – solution; microscope – microscopy – microscopic; appear – disappear – appearance; chemistry – chemical – chemically; combustible – combustibility – combustion; adopt – adopted – adoption; reinforce – reinforcing – reinforcement; define – defining – definition.

Ex. 38. Find 2 words in each line a) with a close meaning

obtain – apply – synthesize – use – reduce stable – inert – unique – reactive – extraordinary nano – positive – macro – small – negative

technology – engineering – method – science – technique define – investigate – demonstrate – determine – adopt produce – exhibit – reduce – compete – demonstrate surprising – wide-ranging – scanning – amazing – competing magnitude – range – order – scale – interface

b) with an opposite meaning

nanometer – macroscale – nanoparticles – nanoscale – nanotechnology catalytic – reactive – colloid – inert – chemical

bright – stiff – transparent – thermal – opaque stable – strong – combustible – conductive – inert spiral – single – straight – open – double

Ex. 39. Find in Text 1 all the nouns with the prefix “nano”.

Ex. 40. Match the English words and phrases with their Russian equivalents.

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Ex. 41. Find in Text 1 the English equivalents for these wordcombinations.

Порошковая металлургия; последние десятилетия; на 5 порядков величины больше чем; может определяться как; источник света (электронов); одна из проблем, которая стоит перед нанотехнологией; оказывать влияние на расцвет науки; объединять усилия и конкурировать; самое активное исследование; теплопроводность в 2 раза больше, чем у алмаза; в тысячу раз лучше, чем у медных проводов; жёсткость и прочность; укрепляющие частицы; предвиденные ранее; в пределах от.

Ex. 42. Find in paragraphs 5 and 7 the examples of infinitive and infinitive constructions.

C. Activity

Ex. 43. Fill in the blanks with prepositions if necessary.

1. Does chemistry deal … transformation of substances? 2. Each element is made up … tiny particles called atoms. 3. Each element is composed … the some kind … atoms which are different … the atoms of all other elements. 4. The lecture was followed … a heated discussion. 5. His name is often referred … in this paper. 6. He is such a bore. He is never listened … . 7. The policeman has been sent … at once. 8. The students … our college are trained … many fields. 9. The discovery of this substance is much spoken … . 10. This chapter is divided … four units. 11. If you wear this hat you’ll be laughed … . 12. Special attention should be paid … the atomic structure of matter.

Ex. 44. A. Fill in the blanks in the texts with the words in the boxes.

THE TYPES OF MATERIALS

It is not difficult to understand that the term … has been used because the material in question really … place between conductors of the electric current and dielectrics that is insulators. The term shows that they conduct … much less readily than conductors but much better than … . Minerals and crystals appear to possess some quite unexpected … .

For example, it is well known that their conductivity … greatly with heating and falls with cooling. As an … is heated its free electrons increase in number and its … increases as well.

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RUTHERFORD’S DISCOVERIES

In 1903 Ernest Rutherford realized that a type of radiation from radium … by French chemist Paul Villard in 1900 was something different from alpha and beta … because of its very much greater … power. Rutherford gave this third type of … its name: the gamma ray.

In 1907 Rutherford together with his colleges … the experiment which demonstrated the … nature of atoms. His interpretation of this experiment let him … the Rutherford model of the atom. In 1921, while working with Niels Bohr, Rutherford theorized about the … of neutrons. His theory of neutrons … in 1932 by his associate James Chadwick who in 1935 … the Nobel Prize in Physics for this discovery.

B. Ask each other the questions about the texts.

Ex. 45. Render the following in English.

A. Углеродные нанотрубки (carbon nanotubes) – это чрезвычайно удивительный новый материал XXI века. Углеродные нанотрубки могут быть намного твёрже стали, легче алюминия и иметь большую проводимость, чем у меди. Хотя список возможных применений нанотрубок очень велик, многие

исследователи считают, что конкурировать с ними в микроэлектронике невозможно. В настоящее время учёными уже создано большое количество электронных и оптоэлектронных устройств на основе нанотрубок: транзисторов, диодов, источников света и детекторов. Учёные уверены, что электрические свойства углеродных нанотрубок очень привлекательны и перспективны по сравнению со стандартными кремниевыми микросхемами.

B. 1. При добавлении очень маленького количества галлия проводимость некоторых материалов увеличивается на несколько порядков величин. 2. Скорость реакции очень часто зависит от нагревания. 3. Многие исследования, имеющие отношение к нанотехнологиям, сталкиваются с проблемой высокой активности наночастиц. 4. Японский учёный Сумио Иджима (Sumio Ijima) в 1991 с помощью электронного микроскопа открыл нанотрубки; он смог обнаружить их во время изучения сажи (soot), полученной электрическими разрядами (discharges) между углеродными электродами. 5. Согласно одному из

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подходов полупроводник рассматривается как тип изолятора с узкой запрещённой зоной (band gap). 6. Предполагается, что нанороботы смогут создавать новые вещества из любого набора атомов.

Ex. 46. Answer these “what questions”.

1.What materials are called nanomaterials?

2.What word did they (nanomaterials) derive their name from?

3.What branches of science influenced the development of nanotechnology?

4.What is the aim of powder metallurgy method?

5.What problem does nanotechnology face now?

6.What branch of science started working first with nanoparticles?

7.What theory led to the achievements in microscopy?

8.What properties do carbon nanotubes exhibit?

9.What kind of computers have been recently demonstrated?

Ex. 47. Explain the following

a)what the main feature of nanomaterials is;

b)what happens to the substances when they are suddenly reduced to the nanoscale;

c)why much effort is devoted to carbon nanotubes.

Ex. 48. Prove that

a)nanotechnology lies at the interfaces between several branches of science;

b)the achievements of nanotechnology will influence scientific prosperity;

c)carbon nanotubes have shown unique electronic properties.

Ex. 49. Divide the text into 4 logical parts, give the title to each part.

Ex. 50. Make up a plan of this text. Retell the text according to the plan and the keywords.

To be of enormous interest, to be notable, to derive the name from, the defining feature, to lie at the interfaces between, colloid chemistry, to investigate the properties, to develop wave theory of light, the main idea of powder metallurgy method, to exhibit unique properties at a nanoscale, to influence scientific prosperity, to concern carbon nanotubes, to be used as, to compete, amazing materials.

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D. Further Reading

Ex. 51. These words are taken from the text below. Use the dictionary

Ex. 52. Scan the text to find the answers to the following questions.

1.How are the materials classified by conductivity type?

2.What is the most varying of all physical properties?

3.What kinds of materials are semiconductors?

Ex. 53. Read the text more attentively for more details about conductivity.

Text 2. CONDUCTIVITY OF MATERIALS

Today the study of the electrical properties of materials is still disclosing many interesting phenomena. To begin with, the wide range of electrical properties exhibited by materials is itself a striking fact.

All the materials are classified into conductors and non-conductos by conductivity type. The conductors are substances which at any temperature have partially occupied bands. The non-conductors include substances some bands of which are filled and empty bands are separated from the filled ones by a forbidden band. Non-conductors may be dielectrics or semiconductors. Semiconductors are substances which forbidden band does not exceed 4...5 eV (electron volts).

Electrical conductivity of a material is one of the most varying of all physical properties. The individual materials begin showing great variability in resistivity according to the conditions of temperature, pressure and the mixture of the component substances.

If a minute trance of gallium or arsenic (one part per billion) is added to pure germanium, its conductivity will be increased by three orders of magnitude (nearly 1,000 fold) and will rather make it suitable for using in transistors. A tiny further addition of the impurity can increase the conductivity 100,000 fold, converting germanium to a conductor. Similarly silicon and metal oxides such as nickel and titanium dioxide are lowered in resistivity by introducing of appropriate impurities. Indeed, nickel oxide, which is an insulator in the pure state, is reduced in resistivity by 13

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orders of magnitude by adding only one per cent of helium. We know of great changes being produced by changes in temperature.

Thus, a semiconductor can be made a conductor by heating it to a high temperature or it can be made an insulator by cooling it to a low temperature.

In contrast, the resistivity of a pure metal is much less increased by heating and reduced by cooling.

In some cases the change is very abrupt. For example, above 150 Kelvin vanadium is a semiconductor, when it is cooled its resistivity suddenly jumps and it becomes a good insulator. Some semiconductors and insulators are extremely sensitive to light. Thus upon illuminating, their conductivity may be several orders of magnitude higher than it is in the dark. This phenomenon is called photoconductivity. How can all these facts be explained? What principles account for the great differences in conductivity between metals and insulators, the peculiar properties of semiconductors? All these questions, of course, could be answered. Many scientists are trying to give definite answers, but still many problems remain to be solved.

Ex. 54. Complete the following statements by choosing the answer which you think fits best. Explain your choice.

1.A tiny addition of an impurity to pure germanium can

a)decrease its conductivity;

b)increase its resistivity;

c)raise its conductivity.

2.The addition of one per cent of helium to pure nickel oxide can

a)increase its resistivity;

b)lower its resistivity;

c)lower its conductivity.

3.A semiconductor can be made a conductor

a)when subjected to cooling to a low temperature;

b)when subjected to heating to a high temperature;

c)when subjected to changes of pressure.

4.On illuminating the conductivity of some semiconductors

a)remains unchanged;

b)falls greatly;

c)rises greatly.

Ex. 55. Here are some answers to some questions about the text. Work out the questions.

1. Electrical conductivity of a semiconductor is one of the most varying physical properties.

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2.No, temperature and impurities affect the conductivity of semiconductors.

3.We know of great changes being produced by changes in tempera-

ture.

4.Some semiconductors and insulators are extremely sensitive to light.

5.No, the conductivity of pure germanium will be increased by three orders of magnitude if a minute amount of arsenic is added.

6.No, a semiconductor can be made an insulator by cooling it to a low temperature.

Ex. 56. Answer the questions, then render Text 2.

1.What are the most varying properties of semiconductors?

2.What factors influence the conductivity and resistivity of semiconductors?

3.How do impurities influence the properties of semiconductors?

4.What effect does temperature have on metals and semiconductors?

5.What phenomenon is called photoconductivity?

6.What problems do scientists face in the study of semiconductors?

Ex. 57. Translate Text 3 and Text 4 in writing using a dictionary.

Text 3. NANOTECHNOLOGY:

ON THE BRINK OF A REVOLUTION

The development of nanotechnology may lead to improvements in many areas of our life. Nanotechnologies are technologies that operate on the level of nanometers – a microscopic scale where machines the size of atoms can be constructed and programmed to perform operations. The US has a third of the world’s share in nanotechnology investment. Other major players in the field are the EU (15%) and Japan (20%). Researches are also being pursued in Russia, Australia, Canada, China, South Korea, Israel, Singapore, and Taiwan. Total nanotechnology expenditure has been increasing rapidly, from $800 million in 2000 to double that amount in 2001.

According to estimates by the US National Nanotechnology Initiative, in 10–15 years the development of nanotech will produce a new industry worth $15 billion and employing 2 million people. According to Scientific American, medical devices the size of postage stamps should be available shortly. The industry could affect medicine, creating robot doctors that could live inside the body and fix any incipient problems. Theoretically, by regenerating dying cells, nanotechnology can indefinitely prolong the human life.

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It is expected that the first generation of nanotech robots will appear by 2025. It’s theoretically possible that they will be able to construct any object from a set of atoms. This could revolutionize agriculture – nanotech robots will simply produce plants and animals from materials given to them without having to use pesticides, hormones, or feed.

Text 4. RECOMBINATION1

If the crystal lattice is raised to an elevated temperature, thermal excitation will occasionally free an electron from the interatomic bonds. This creates simultaneously both a conduction electron and a hole. If a field is applied, they move away in opposite directions and give rise to electrical conductivity. Occasionally an electron and a hole will meet and the electron will fall back into the bond. This process is called “recombination”. By raising the solid to a sufficiently high temperature any insulator can be expected to show this behavior, which is called “intrinsic conduction”, since it is an intrinsic property of the material. The temperature necessary for this to be appreciable will be determined by the width of the forbidden gap.

Another way to free electrons and increase the conductivity is to shine light on the material. If the light quanta are of sufficiently high energy, we can create electron-hole pairs, just as in the case of thermal excitation. Conduction produced in this way is often called “photoconduction”.

Unit III. The Age of Robots and Nanotechnology

A. Pre-Reading

Ex. 58. Read the heading of the Unit. Investigate the idea of robotics.

a)Name some words and phrases related to robotics.

b)Guess the meaning of these words.

Intelligent, mechanical, design, integrate, compact, demonstrate, robotic, perform, programmable, imitate, manipulate, chip, radioactive, zone, explore, coordinate, autonomous, humanoid, human, magnetic, ultrasonic, sensor, actuator, balance, stimulus, pioneer, logical, artificial, detect.

Ex. 59. Learn to pronounce the words given below.

Volcano [vol/keinou], defuse [di:/fju:z], bomb [bom], intelligent [in/telidʒənt], design [di/zain], robotic [rou/botik], circuit [/sə:kit], precise

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1 Recombination – рекомбинация, восстановление.

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[pri/sais], programmable [/prougræməb(ə)l], creature [/kri:t∫ə], surroundings [sə/raundiŋz], repetitive [ri/petətiv], environment [in/vaiərənmənt], coordinate [kou/o:rdineit], teammate [/ti:mmeit], autonomous [o:/tonəməs], humanoid [/hju:mənoid], ultrasonic [/Λltrə/sonik], actuator [/ækt∫ueitə], dozen [/dΛz(ə)n], effect [i/fekt], gearbox [/giəboks], climb [klaim], microcomputer [/maikro(u)kəm/pju:tə], stimulus [/stimjuləs], response [ris/pons], wire [/waiə], conscious [/kon∫əs], artificial [/a:ti/fi∫əl], pursue [pə/sju:], drawing [/dro:iŋ].

Ex. 60. Learn the words given below.

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Ex. 61. Give the Russian equivalents of these word combinations.

Compact and reliable electronics, robotic manufacturing ashtrays, a programmable machine imitating an intelligent creature, moving or manipulating objects, to require precise and fast movements, soldering tiny wires, inserting integrated circuits onto printed circuit boards, semiconductor chips, magnetic fields, ultrasonic waves, robotic light sensors, dozens of actuators, artificial intelligence.

Ex. 62. Match the questions with the answers.

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