The Course of English for University Students (Step 3). Учебное пособие

NOTES ON WRITING ESSAYS

life-support machines such as respirators to help them breathe and feeding tubes to provide them with nutrition. They are clearly more dead than alive and can never live normally again. For example, after Samuel, an infant, had swallowed a balloon, he stopped breathing. The balloon was removed, but the lack of oxygen had caused brain damage and left him in an irreversible coma. Samuel was unable to breathe without the aid of a respirator, and there was no hope for his recovery.

Another reason to support mercy killing is that medical costs are very high. Today the cost of a hospital room in the United States can exceed $1,450perdayforbasiccare,whichdoesnotincludethecostofspecialized care or the use of special equipment. The high cost of medical care can causemajorfinancialproblemsforthefamily.Forexample,CharlesAtkin’s eighty-two- year-old wife lived in a nursing home in a coma for four years. Since there was no chance for her recovery, Mr. Adkins requested that the medical staff withhold treatment. However, his pleas were ignored. Soon after she died, Mr. Atkins was billed $250,000 for his wife’s care. The courts ordered him to pay the bill, which placed an impossible financial burden on him.

The final reason to support the legalization of euthanasia is that the family suffers. The nurses and other hospital staff can give the terminally ill patient only minimal care. Thus, the family must spend time to care for the special needs of their loved ones. For instance, Nancy Martin was kept alive on life-support machines for eight years. She could never recover from her vegetative state. However, during those years, her loving, caring parents visited her regularly.

In the end, because terminally ill patients have no chance to recover and to live normal lives, they should be allowed to die with dignity. Therefore, the family should have the right to ask doctors to turn off the life-support machines or to stop further medical treatment. To prolong life artificially when there is no hope for the future is a tragedy both for the patients and for their loved ones.

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Vocabulary:

artificial (adj) – happening as a result of human action; not as a result of a natural process

coma (n) – unconscious state in which one cannot see, hear, or speak euthanasia (n) – causing a gentle and painless death for a person

suffering from a painful

incurable disease, extreme old age, etc. exceed (v) – be greater than

incurable (adj) – cannot be cured by medical treatment irreversible (adj) – not changeable

legalization (n) – making an action or activity acceptable by law nutrition (n) – food containing vitamins and minerals

terminally (adv) – a form of the adjective terminal – an illness or accident that is certain to result in death

vegetative (adj) – leading a physical existence without functioning mentally

Providing Support

An opinion is what a person believes or expresses about a subject. The essay presented above argues that people who cannot recover from their illnesses or accidents should have the right to die. That is the writer’s opinion, but one with which others may or may not agree.When one writes an argumentative essay one seeks to convince readers to agree with the truth or value of certain opinions. Unaided by support, opinions are often unconvincing. To be persuasive, they must be supported by well developed reasons. The opinion expressed in the foregoing essay is supported by the following reasons:

Paragraph 2: The patients have no chance of recovery. Paragraph 3: Medical costs are very high.

Paragraph 4: The family suffers.

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Reread the second, third, and fourth paragraphs of the essay. You will see that the writer has supported each reason with facts and examples.

Afact is a true statement that can be proven.When one gives an opinion about a subject, one wishes the reader to agree. It is therefore necessary to provide reasons to support one’s opinion, which are supported in turn by facts. Read the following example.

Thesis statement

Alcoholic beverages should not be allowed on university campuses for several reasons:

Topic Sentence 1

The first reason is that drinking can cause academic failure.

Supporting Ideas

–Drinking can make it difficult to concentrate

–Drinking can cause students to miss classes, fail to complete homework, and fail exams

Supporting Facts and Examples

–Results of a University of Pennsylvania study -The experience of my friend Dan

Exercise

The following thesis statements (also known as “opinions” or “conclusions”) have one supporting statement. Write two additional statements to support each of them.

1. Thesis statement: Marijuana should be legalized.

Supporting statement # 1: It is less harmful to people’s health than alcohol.

Supporting statement # 2: ____________________________________

Supporting statement # 3: ____________________________________

2. Thesisstatement:Smokingshouldbebannedinrestaurantsandpubs. Supporting statement # 1: It will help people to give up this unhealthy

habit.

Supporting statement # 2: ____________________________________

Supporting statement # 3: ____________________________________

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3. Thesis statement: Women should not work if they have young children.

Supporting statement # 1: Small children need the constant, loving attention that only a mother can provide.

Supporting statement # 2: ____________________________________

Supporting statement # 3: ____________________________________

Organization of an Argumentative Essay

An argumentative essay should be structured as follows:

• INTRODUCTION

Provide background information or an example to show the significance of the topic or the nature of the controversy. Consider stating the conclusion of your argument in the introduction through use of the thesis statement.

• REFUTATION

Briefly describe possible opposing views to make the reader aware that you have considered but rejected them for good reasons. The refutation can be placed near the end of the essay, just before your conclusion, if considered appropriate, or interspersed throughout the essay. Choose the best location to achieve your purpose.

• PRESENTATION OF ONE’S ARGUMENT

Throughout the body of the essay one should build one’s case one point at a time, perhaps devoting one paragraph to the defense of each premise, or setting forth one’s evidence in separate, meaningful categories.

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• CONCLUSION

After all the evidence has been presented and you have defended your premises, summarize your complete argument in the last paragraph by showing how the evidence provides sufficient grounds for accepting your conclusion.Youmayaddhereapersuasivedevicetofinishyouressay,such as a prediction, a new example, a reference to the example with which you began (now seen in a new light), etc. [4].

Tips for Writing an Argumentative Essay

• Choose a Topic Which Has At Least Two Sides

Choose a subject that allows for the possibility of persuading the reader. Avoid subjects that cannot be addressed in a logical manner and that cannot be proven with evidence from unbiased academic sources.

• Analyze Your Audience

Who are your readers? What do they already know about the subject? How are they likely to feel about it? How impartial or prejudiced are they going to be? Can you find a way to present your argument so that they will receive it logically rather than emotionally? Some ideas, especially those based on one’s religious convictions or other strongly held emotional beliefs, are difficult to challenge or debate with logic.

• Make a List of Your Main Points

Make a list of the main points you will use in your argument. Analyze each piece of evidence to decide how effective it will be in proving your thesis.

• Use Unbiased Sources

Skilled writers avoid presenting ideas which are distorted, inaccurate, or inflammatory. Argue with solid, reasonable, and relevant evidence. Be as fair-minded as possible.

• Make a List of Counter Arguments

Make a list of the possible arguments your readers might present against yourposition.Thinkofthewaysinwhichyoumightrefutethoseobjections.

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• Decide How You Will Structure Your Essay

Decide how you want to structure your essay. You can begin with a thesis and then provide evidence.You can begin with the evidence and end with an assertion. You can discuss your weakest point in the middle of the paper and your strongest point at the end. Which structure seems to suit your subject and evidence best?

• Build To a Memorable Conclusion

Conclusions are what listeners and readers are most likely to remember. Be sure your conclusion is the strongest, most dynamic part of your paper by demonstrating the importance of your argument and summoning your reader to action.

Reading

Read the following text carefully and then answer the questions about it which follow.

Child Care

Recent changes in federal government priorities have seen a reduction in financial support for parents who use child care. This is occurring at a time when there is increasing social and financial pressure on parents, particularly mothers, to work. The issue of child care and working mothers has been the subject of dispute for some time. Many argue that the best place for children is always in their own homes with their own parents. However, it is my contention that there are many advantages to be had from using child care and the government should provide more financial assistance to parents who do so.

It has been argued that children who attend child care centers at an early age miss out on important early learning that occurs in parent-child interaction. These children, so this argument goes, may be educationally disadvantaged later in life. However, child care centers may actually assist children in their early learning.

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They give children an opportunity to mix with other children and to develop social skills at an early age. Indeed, a whole range of learning occurs in child care centers.

Another argument against the use of child care facilities is that children can be emotionally deprived in these facilities compared to the home. This argument assumes that the best place for children to be is at their parents’, especially mother’s, side for twenty-four hours a day. It claims that children’s emotional development can be damaged when they are left in child care facilities. However, parents and children need to spend some time apart. Moreover, children become less dependent on their parents and parents themselves are less stressed and more effective care-givers when there are periods of separation, in fact, recent studies indicate that the parent-child relationship can be improved by the use of high-quality child care facilities.

It could further be asserted that the government and the economy as a whole cannot afford the enormous cost involved in supporting child care for working parents. However, working parents actually contribute to the national economy. They are able to utilize their productive skills and pay incometax,whilenonworkingparentscanbecomeadrainonthetaxsystem through dependent spouse and other rebates.

In conclusion, government support for child care services assists individual families and is important for the economic well-being of the nation.

Exercises

Exercise 1 – The Main Conclusion

Look at paragraph one of the previous article: the introduction. What is the main conclusion presented here?

Answer:__________________________________________________

Exercise 2 – Paragraph Topics

Paragraphs 2, 3 and 4 all cover different topics relating to the issue

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of child care. Describe the topic of each paragraph in four words or less below.

Answers: _________________________________________________

Paragraph 2: ______________________________________________

Paragraph 3: ______________________________________________

Paragraph 4: ______________________________________________

Exercise 3 – OpposingArguments and SupportingArguments: Paragraphs 2, 3 and 4 don’t just contain arguments that support the main

conclusion. They also contain arguments that oppose the main conclusion. It is important to include opposing arguments to show your reader that (1) you have considered both sides of the argument; and (2) you are able to anticipateandcriticizeanyopposingargumentsbeforetheyareevenstated. List the opposing arguments in paragraphs 2, 3 and 4 below.

Paragraph 2: ______________________________________________

Paragraph 3: ______________________________________________

Paragraph 4: ______________________________________________

Exercise 4 – Problematizing the OpposingArguments:

Itisimportantforthereadertounderstandthatwhenyouwriteopposing arguments you do not agree with them. You have to make it very clear that you are presenting these arguments only to show that you understand the issue from both sides, that you have anticipated the opposing arguments, and that you wish to criticize them.

In order to signal this you need to use special phrases to “problematize” the opposing statements. (To “problematize” something means to make it seem like a problem; to make it seem untrue). We can problematize arguments by making them appear to be debatable opinions and not facts.

Example: “It has been argued that children who attend child care centers at any early age miss out on important early learning that occurs in parent-child interaction.

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By including the phrase “It has been argued that...” in the above statement the writer is problematizing the statement below:

“Children who attend child care centers at any early age miss out on important early learning that occurs in parent-child interaction”.

When there is no problematizing phrase, the statement appears nondebatable. The writer is presenting it as a fact.

Find the other problematizing phrases in paragraphs 2, 3 and 4 of the text. They will be located in the areas of the paragraph where the opposing arguments are located (i.e., the first part of each paragraph). List them below:

Paragraph 2: ______________________________________________

Paragraph 3: ______________________________________________

Paragraph 4: ______________________________________________

Exercise 5 – Shifting from Opposing Arguments to Supporting Arguments

You can also signal the difference between opposing and supporting arguments by clearly marking the point in each paragraph where you shift from one to the other. You can use contrasting connectives to mark this point. The most common of these contrasting connectives is “However”.

Find the point in each of paragraphs 2, 3 and 4 where the writer shifts from opposing arguments to supporting arguments. List them below:

Paragraph 2: ______________________________________________

Paragraph 3: ______________________________________________

Paragraph 4: ______________________________________________

Writing an Introduction to an Argumentative Essay

Introductions are very important. The introduction gives the reader his or her first impression of a text. The first impression that you aim to give the reader is of a high-quality argumentative text written in a professional, academic style.

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Asimple introduction to an argumentative essay has four parts:

A.Introduction of the topic

B.An explanation of why the topic is important

C.Astatement that a difference of opinion exists concerning the topic

D.A description of how the essay will be structured and a clear declaration of the writer’s main conclusion

Writing a Concluding Paragraph to an Argumentative Essay

The concluding paragraph is just as important as the introduction. The concluding paragraph closes the essay and attempts to close the issue. The aim is to convince the reader that the essay has examined the most important arguments about the issue and that the conclusion you’ve written contains the best position concerning the issue. One should not present any new arguments in the concluding paragraph.

Many students find it difficult to write a concluding paragraph. By this point they may have done so much work on the body of the essay that they just want to finish the task as quickly as possible. As a result, the concluding paragraph is often written hurriedly, carelessly, and without sufficient planning. However, the concluding paragraph conveys the last thoughts about the topic that the reader will see. If badly written, the concluding paragraph will leave the reader unconvinced about the merits of the writer’s arguments. To avert this possibility, careful writers will devote whatever time is needed to write a convincing concluding paragraph that causes the reader to react positively to the essay’s message.

The concluding paragraph should have the following features:

A.It restates the main conclusion;

B.It contains one or two general statements that support the main conclusion

C.It provides a warning of the consequences of not supporting the conclusion or a declaration of how the public, community, society, etc., will benefit from supporting the conclusion

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