Smart technologies in petroleum industry. Интеллектуальные геофизические системы в нефтегазовой индустрии. Учебное пособие

I can speak English. (Я могу говорить по-английски.)

1. Вопросительная форма образуется передвижением модального глагола на первое место в предложении: Must you go to the University tomorrow? (You must go to the University tomorrow.)

В отрицательном предложении после модального глагола упо-

требляется частица not (cannot, must not, should not): She cannot give you her text-book.

Глаголы can, may имеют формы настоящего и прошедшего време-

ни: can (could), may (might).

Глагол must имеет только одну форму. Чтобы отнести его к прошедшему или будущему времени нужно использовать его эквивален-

ты: to be to, to have to

Значения модальных глаголов

Изучите употребление модальных глаголов в сочетании с Perfect Infinitive.

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2. Translate the sentences from English into Russian.

1.Heavy graders are used when large volumes of soil have to be han-

dled.

2.The device can provide great opportunities.

3.Scrapers should be used on moderate wet sandy soils.

4.It must be understood that engine requirements differ considerably.

5.Such substances may cause cancer.

6.Hazardous consequences should be vastly lowered.

7.Global warming may result in profound shifts of climate.

8.The material may be discharged with the help of various devices.

9.The results of the experiment can be easily calculated.

10.Consumers should ask about the contents of dangerous substances.

11.The cost of the production could be cut more than 50 %.

12.The share arm can be raised with a disk knife.

13.Depending on the style, the resistor may be encapsulated in lacquer, high temperature cement or by molding.

14.Infectious diseases can spread very fast.

15. Ethanol can be fatal if ingested, inhaled or absorbed through the skin.

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3.Study the table showing the use of modals with Perfect Infinitive. Translate the sentences.

1.We do not believe scientists could have achieved such progress.

2.The researchers may not have known about those data.

3.The explosion must have occurred long ago.

4.The assistant might have made a mistake.

5.We figured that they must have obtained new results of the experi-

ment.

6.Safety engineering should have done it previously.

7.Some problems of science could not have been solved without isotopes.

8.The goods are reported to have been delivered.

9.The research must have been performed according to the safety instructions.

10.He must have found out about the conference beforehand.

11.The influence of temperatures on these substances should have been studied long ago.

12.No living beings could have survived in such climate.

13.Carbon steels must have been used in the construction of this building.

14.Life may have been existed on that planet.

15.A lot of practical difficulties must have been encountered in the implementation of this idea.

16.The research on nickel alloys may have been done last term.

17.The explanation cannot have been adequate under the circumstances.

18.The experiment should have been performed beforehand.

19.They must have arrived at these principles through observation and experiment.

20.I could have gone to the conference but I lost my invitation.

21.The delegation must have missed their flight.

TRANSLATE

1. Translate the text from English into Russian.

PETROLEUM RESERVOIR

A structure map, looking downward, generated by contour map software for an 8,500-ft-deep gas and oil reservoir in the Erath field, Erath, Louisiana. The left-to-right gap near the top indicates a fault line between the blue and green contour lines and the purple, red, and yellow lines. The thin red

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circular line in the middle indicates the top of the oil reservoir. Because gas rises above oil, this latter line marks the gas-and-oil contact zone.

A petroleum reservoir or oil and gas reservoir is a subsurface accumulation of hydrocarbons contained in porous or fractured rock formations.

Such reservoirs form when kerogen (ancient plant matter) is created in surrounding rock by the presence of high heat and pressure in the Earth's crust. Petroleum reservoirs are broadly classified as conventional and unconventional reservoirs. In conventional reservoirs, the naturally occurring hydrocarbons, such as crude oil or natural gas, are trapped by overlying rock formations with lower permeability, while in unconventional reservoirs, the rocks have high porosity and low permeability, which keeps the hydrocarbons trapped in place, therefore not requiring a cap rock. Reservoirs are found using hydrocarbon exploration methods.

Oil field

An oil field with dozens of wells. This is the Summerland Oil Field, near Santa Barbara, California, before 1906.

Eagle Ford Shale flares visible from space (green and infrared wavelengths), in the arc between "1" and "2", amid cities in southeast Texas in 2012.

An oil field is an area of accumulation of liquid oil underground in multiple (potentially linked) reservoirs, trapped as it rises by impermeable rock formations. In industrial terms, an oil field implies that there is economic benefit worthy of commercial attention. Oil fields themselves may extend up to several hundred kilometers across the surface, meaning that extraction efforts can be large and spread out across the area. In addition to extraction equipment, there may be exploratory wells probing the edges to find more reservoir area, pipelines to transport the oil elsewhere, and support facilities.

Oil fields can occur anywhere that the geology of the underlying rock allows, meaning that certain fields can be far away from civilization, including at sea. Creating an operation at an oil field can be a logistically complex undertaking, as it involves not only the equipment associated with extraction and transportation, but infrastructure such as roads and housing for workers. This infrastructure has to be designed with the lifespan of the oil field in mind, as production can last many years. Several companies, such as Hill International, Bechtel, Esso, Weatherford International, Schlumberger Limited, Baker Hughes and Halliburton, have organizations that specialize

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in the large-scale construction of the infrastructure to support oil field exploitation.

The term "oilfield" can be used as a shorthand to refer to the entire petroleum industry. However, it is more accurate to divide the oil industry into three sectors: upstream (crude oil production from wells and separation of water from oil), midstream (pipeline and tanker transport of crude oil) and downstream (refining of crude oil to products, marketing of refined products, and transportation to oil stations).

More than 65,000 oil fields are scattered around the globe, on land and offshore. The largest are the Ghawar Field in Saudi Arabia and the Burgan Field in Kuwait, with more than 66 to 104 billion barrels (9,5×109 m3) estimated in each. In the modern age, the location of oil fields with proven oil reserves is a key underlying factor in many geopolitical conflicts.

Gas field

The drillship Discoverer Enterprise is shown in the background, at work during exploratory phase of a new offshore field. The Offshore Support Vessel Toisa Perseus is shown in the foreground, illustrating part of the complex logistics of offshore oil and gas exploration and production.

Natural gas originates by the same geological thermal cracking process that converts kerogen to petroleum. As a consequence, oil and natural gas are often found together. In common usage, deposits rich in oil are known as oil fields, and deposits rich in natural gas are called natural gas fields.

In general, organic sediments buried in depths of 1,000 m to 6,000 m (at temperatures of 60 °C to 150 °C) generate oil, while sediments buried deeper and at higher temperatures generate natural gas instead. The deeper the source, the "drier" the gas (that is, the smaller the proportion of condensates in the gas). Because both oil and natural gas are lighter than water, they tend to rise from their sources until they either seep to the surface or are trapped by a non-permeable stratigraphic trap. They can be extracted from the trap by drilling.

The largest natural gas field is South Pars/Asalouyeh gas field, which is shared between Iran and Qatar. The second largest natural gas field is the Urengoy gas field, and the third largest is the Yamburg gas field, both in Russia.

Like oil, natural gas is often found underwater in offshore gas fields such as the North Sea, Corrib Gas Field off Ireland, and near Sable Island.

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The technology to extract and transport offshore natural gas is different from land-based fields. It uses a few, very large offshore drilling rigs, due to the cost and logistical difficulties in working over water.

Rising gas prices in the early 21st century encouraged drillers to revisit fields that previously were not considered economically viable. For example, in 2008, McMoran Exploration passed a drilling depth of over 32,000 feet (9754 m) (the deepest test well in the history of gas production) at the Blackbeard site in the Gulf of Mexico. Exxon Mobil's drill rig there had reached 30,000 feet by 2006, without finding gas, before it abandoned the site.

Formation

Crude oil is found in all oil reservoirs formed in the Earth's crust from the remains of once-living things. Evidence indicates that millions of years of heat and pressure changed the remains of microscopic plant and animal into oil and natural gas.

Roy Nurmi, an interpretation adviser for Schlumberger oil field services company, described the process as follows:

Plankton and algae, proteins and the life that's floating in the sea, as it dies, falls to the bottom, and these organisms are going to be the source of our oil and gas. When they're buried with the accumulating sediment and reach an adequate temperature, something above 50 to 70 °C they start to cook. This transformation, this change, changes them into the liquid hydrocarbons that move and migrate, will become our oil and gas reservoir.

In addition to the aquatic environment, which is usually a sea but might also be a river, lake, coral reef, or algal mat, the formation of an oil or gas reservoir also requires a sedimentary basin that passes through four steps:

offshore drilling rigs under sand and mud

Pressure cooking

Hydrocarbon migration from the source to the reservoir rock

Trapping by impermeable rock

Timing is also an important consideration; it is suggested that the Ohio River Valley could have had as much oil as the Middle East at one time, but that it escaped due to a lack of traps. The North Sea, on the other hand, endured millions of years of sea level changes that successfully resulted in the formation of more than 150 oilfields.

Although the process is generally the same, various environmental factors lead to the creation of a wide variety of reservoirs. Reservoirs exist

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anywhere from the land surface to 30,000 ft (9,000 m) below the surface and are a variety of shapes, sizes, and ages. In recent years, igneous reservoirs have become an important new field of oil exploration, especially in trachyte and basalt formations. These two types of reservoirs differ in oil content and physical properties like fracture connectivity, pore connectivity, and rock porosity.

2. Make the glossary to the text.

3. Translate the text from English into Russian.

UNCONVENTIONAL RESERVOIRS

Unconventional reservoirs form in completely different ways to conventional reservoirs, the main difference being that they do not have "traps". This type of reservoir can be driven in a unique way as well, as buoyancy might not be the driving force for oil and gas accumulation in such reser-

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voirs. This is analogous to saying that the oil which can be extracted forms within the source rock itself, as opposed to accumulating under a cap rock. Oil sands are an example of an unconventional oil reservoir.

Unconventional reservoirs and their associated unconventional oil are always changing in their definitions, as they encompass a broad spectrum of petroleum extraction and refinement techniques, as well as many different sources.

Due to how the oil is contained within the source rock, unconventional reservoirs require that the extracting entity function as a mining operation rather than drilling and pumping like a conventional reservoir. This has tradeoffs, with higher post-production costs associated with complete and clean extraction of oil being a factor of consideration for a company interested in pursuing a reservoir. Tailings are also left behind, increasing cleanup costs. Despite these tradeoffs, unconventional oil is being pursued at a higher rate due to the scarcity of conventional reservoirs around the world.

Estimating reserves

After the discovery of a reservoir, a petroleum engineer will seek to build a better picture of the accumulation. In a simple textbook example of a uniform reservoir, the first stage is to conduct a seismic survey to determine the possible size of the trap. Appraisal wells can be used to determine the location of oil-water contact and with it the height of the oil bearing sands. Often coupled with seismic data, it is possible to estimate the volume of an oil-bearing reservoir.

The next step is to use information from appraisal wells to estimate the porosity of the rock. The porosity, or the percentage of the total volume that contains fluids rather than solid rock, is 20–35 % or less. It can give information on the actual capacity. Laboratory testing can determine the characteristics of the reservoir fluids, particularly the expansion factor of the oil, or how much the oil expands when brought from the high pressure and high temperature of the reservoir to a "stock tank" at the surface.

With such information, it is possible to estimate how many "stock tank" barrels of oil are located in the reservoir. Such oil is called the stock tank oil initially in place (STOIIP). As a result of studying factors such as the permeability of the rock (how easily fluids can flow through the rock) and possible drive mechanisms, it is possible to estimate the recovery factor, or what proportion of oil in place can be reasonably expected to be produced.

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The recovery factor is commonly 30–35 %, giving a value for the recoverable resources.

The difficulty is that reservoirs are not uniform. They have variable porosities and permeabilities and may be compartmentalized, with fractures and faults breaking them up and complicating fluid flow. For this reason, computer modeling of economically viable reservoirs is often carried out. Geologists, geophysicists, and reservoir engineers work together to build a model that allows simulation of the flow of fluids in the reservoir, leading to an improved estimate of the recoverable resources.

Reserves are only the part of those recoverable resources that will be developed through identified and approved development projects. Because the evaluation of "Reserves" has a direct impact on the company or the asset value, it usually follows a strict set of rules or guidelines (even though loopholes are commonly used by companies to inflate their own share price). The most common guidelines are the SPE PRMS guidelines, the SEC Rules, or the COGE Handbook. Government may also have their own systems, making it more complicated for investors to compare one company with another.

4. Make the glossary to the text.

WRITING

1. Write the summary of the text "IMPROVING THE PRODUCTI-

VITY OF THE OIL AND GAS WELLS".

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SPEAKING

1. Speak about the benefits of improving the productivity of the oil

and gas wells. Use the following phrases.

What counts (matters) here is...

It is important to keep in mind that...

It is vital to note...

On the one hand...on the other hand...

This plays important/key/major/prominent role in...

To my way of thinking, ...

LESSON 2. SMART OIL FIELDS

BEFORE YOU READ

1.What are the advantages of this method of oil extraction compared with vertical wells?

2. How do you think computers are used in this method?

Vocabulary

READING

Read the text

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