книги / Минерально-сырьевые ресурсы Пермского края

sess the value of the minerai resources in the earth’s interior. According to the first technique of the VSEGEI institute, the value of mineral resources in the earth’s interior is estimated by the value of po­ tential profit, which can be obtained by the investor in the course of the mineral resources exploitation. According to the second one (SIE «Cadastre») the value of the mineral resources is assessed by the ren­ tal income, i.e. the value of mineral resources re­ serves before the applying labour to extract and pro­ cess them.

The analysis of the results of calculation gives the following conclusions:

1.At a regional market potash salts (69.9%), mag­ nesium salts (15.0%), oil (8.3%) and rock salt (4.3%) determine the material value of mineral resources of Prikamyie area by a profit factor (VSEGEI proce­ dure). Specific weight of the Upper-Kama salt de­ posit (UKSD) in the value of subsurface wealth is the most significant and amounts to 89%. The total share of the rest registered types of mineral resour­ ces, mostly of mineral-constructing ones, including generally spread resources amounts to 2.6% in the value of subsurface wealth.

2.Material value of geological reserves of Pri­ kamyie area only of the registered types of mineral resources in the regional market prices of mineral resources reaches 4022 mid rub. or over $140 mid (with value discount of mineral resources of future periods for the moment of economic evaluation of reserves). The total value of subsurface wealth re­ serves of one square kilometre of Prikamyie territo­ ry is estimated in 31.6 ml rub. or $ 1.1 ml.

3.The Upper-Kama Salt Deposit (85.8%) and hydrocarbon raw materials (12.6%) determine the rent profit of subsurface wealth reserves of Prikamyie in the main registered types of mineral resources. The total share of the rest registered types of mine­ ral resources, mostly of mineral-constructing re­ sources, including generally spread ones, amounts to 1.6% in the value of subsurface wealth.

4.The total rent profit of the geological reserves of the commercial categories of Prikamyie only in the registered types of mineral resources is estima­ ted in 454 mid rub. or about $16 mid. The value discount of subsurface wealth of future periods to the base year of value decreased more than by an order of magnitude the total value of reserves esti­ mated with VSEGEI technique. It is explained by the long terms of mineral resources exploitation, and with the reached rates of production they are the

following: potash salts — over 150 years, magne­ sium salts — about 1000 years, rock salt — about 4.6 thou years for the main and most valuable Perm Krai deposit.

5. The annual rent profit of the mineral resources production in Perm Krai is estimated in 9 mid rub., mostly due to the oil fields exploitation (70.7%) and potash salts (26.2% ). The calculated sum of the rent profit by 1.4 time exceeds the actual receipt of taxes and payments from the mineral resources exploita­ tion into the consolidated budget of Perm Krai in 2003, and it is considered the potential reserve of extra income drawing from the «socialisation» of the nature-resources rent.

As a whole, rent profits from mineral resources production can and should become an investment source into geological exploration of mineral re­ sources, rational use and reproduction of raw-mate­ rial supply. So it is necessary to ratify a set of laws at the federal level, regulating the withdrawal and use ways of «super profit».

Geological resources complex in Russia provides the main part (60%) of the federal budget income and over 75% ofthe export currency earnings. Mine­ ral resources play an important role in filling the budget of Prikamyie. In 2003 the total sum of tax and payments revenue from the enterprises-producers of mineral products into all levels of budgets was 26.1 mid rub., including Perm Krai consolidated budget — 6.3 mid rub., or 24% of its income part. In 2004 the tax and payments revenue increased and amounted 28.1 and 8.1 mid rub. accordingly. Thus the social-economic development of Prikamyie is de­ fined to a large extent by use of mineral resources potential of the region.

Oil fields production gives 75% of total tax reve­ nues into Perm Krai consolidated budget from the mining enterprises, and over 90% of tax on mineral resources production. Oil and potash-magnesium salts recovery provides over 97.5% of all incomes from subsurface use and 96.5% of the total tax on mineral resources production. These ratios remain the same in prospect. At the same time the share of oil in the tax volume is decreasing (2005 —74.4%; 2010 — 71.5%), but is increasing for salts (2005 — 23.2%; 2010 —26.4%). An input of diamonds is es­ timated at a level of 1.3% at the overall taxes and about 2% at a mining tax. The total share of the rest mineral resources is rather insignificant — 1% in the consolidated budget and up to 1.5% of mining tax.

In the course of the mineral resources mining, the mineral reserves of deposits are not recovered (excluding fresh water reserves). Ideally the amount of mined mineral reserves should be compensated bv the same amount of the newly explored. But the increasing demand of consumer market for mine­ ral resources, the implementation of intensification technologies of production and processing may change this ideal proportion into the increasing deficit of the reserves. Besides, the deficit of re­ serves can be conditioned by the nature conditions of the territory and economic and ecological fac­ tors as well. The restitution of mineral resources means the achievement of optimal level of reserves’ growth. The restitution of mineral resources (MR) in Russia is realised by regular geological prospec­ ting of the territory with the concentration of geo­ logic-exploration works at the promising areas of the Earth’s interior.

The level of geological exploration of Perm Krai is satisfactory, but extremely inhomogeneous in quality and types of explorations. The northern and eastern parts of the territory belonging to the moun­ tain-folding Urals has been covered by the geologi­ cal survey in 1 : 200 000—1: 50 000 scale, aimed at exploring the traditional raw materials for the wes­ tern slope first of all: diamonds, gold, ferrum, man­ ganese, platinum, chromites, rare metals.

The central and western parts of Prikamyie situa­ ted in the limits of the eastern edge of the Eastern - European platform are characterised by the specific set of raw materials: salt, oil, gas, strontium, copper (copper sands), mineral paints (volkonskoite) and generally spread mineral resources. The main volu­ me of geological explorations here was oil-oriented, and to a less extent salts-oriented as a result not the whole complex of all-round types of works was per­ formed and they had the extreme mixed character of their quality.

The regional geological survey (GS) in 1: 200000 scale (GS-200) performed on Perm Krai territory have not been intended to explore the resources of Pi —P2 category. This problem can be and must be solved by the prospecting survey in 1 : 50 000 scale. Unfortunately those works were executed at the lo­ cal fields, the total area of which is about 30% of Krai territory. That may be the reason why so few attractive investing projects for the exploitation of

solid raw materials appear in Perm Krai. Neverthe­ less, the results of the executed geological surveys and scientific-research works allow to evaluate the prospects of expansion and development of Perm Krai mineral resources in many types of raw mate­ rials.

The explored salt reserves of the Upper-Kama Deposit can be exploited for several hundred years with today’s rates of its exploitation. But in the nea­ rest future the actual task for geologists, geophysi­ cists and geomechanics is to revise the data on geo­ logical structure and modes of potash beds occur­ rences to provide the safety of potash mines from flooding and safety of the worked out areas of So­ likamsk and Berezniki towns as well.

In Perm Krai 214 deposits of hydrocarbons are discovered, including 188 oil, 22 gas-bearing and 4 gas fields (data on 01.01.2004). Oil has got the leading position among the hydrocarbon products. A share of free gas and gas of the gas caps in the ba­ lance of the explored reserves is only 7%, and in the annual production — 4%. The independent depo­ sits of gas-condensate were not discovered.

According to the results of the prognosis estima­ tion (2000) about 2000 deposits of HCs can be found on the regional territory in the traditional anticli­ nal and multi-structured traps.

The increasing of the resources and the growth of the chrome ore reserves of the Saranov belt is pos­ sible at the expense of wings and deep horizons of the known deposits and of the prospecting new chrome-bearing bodies and blocks of the laminated intrusions as well. According to the geological data the chromite bodies of the Main Saranov and SouthSaranov deposits can be traced 1000 m deep and more. The exploitation of chrome ores at large depths can be profitable taking into account the changing state of the market for this type of mineral resour­ ces. The reserves of chromite ore in the tectonic blocks of the intrusive bodies transferred upward de­ pend on the sizes of blocks and preservation in them of the ultramafic part of the section. In favourable cases large chrome-bearing blocks may contain up to tens million tons of chromite ores.

In 1996—2003 in the course of prospecting works of primary diamond fields and of the regional geo­ logical survey explorations 14 promising objects of finding the primary diamond fields were discovered.

inaccessible for people can be used to preserve hyd­ rocarbon raw materials and tor burying' of liquid com­ mercial wastes.

At the beginning of 90' of the last century the problem of building of large underground gas repo­ sitory (UGR) was raised by RJSC «Gasprom». The feasibility study for UGR construction in the south­ western outskirts of Berezniki city was designed by «Podzemgazprom Company» (Moscow). It was planned to build the UGR in the solid mass of rock salt at the depth of 411—577 m from the surface in the reservoirs artificially constructed by the under­ ground leaching. It was supposed to build 21 reser­ voirs w7ith the total project capacity of 726.6 ml m3. In spite of the positive resolution of the exper­ tise, including the ecological one, that feasibility study was not implemented for different reasons, economic ones being of the highest priority at that time.

Another way to use the underground spaces, which are inaccessible for people, is to bury liquid wastes of chemical, oil-chemical and other indus­ tries. The idea is to inject wastewater unsuitable for domestic use into the deep water-bearing horizons, their burying in the aeration zone of large thickness and their use for flooding the exploited oil deposits and so on. The most perspective ones for wastewa­ ter’s injection are the absorbing horizons in the sec­ tion of the Paleozoic deposits of Perm Prikamyie, and they are connected with the fracture-karst zones in the Vizey-Serpukhov-Вashkirsky and Fransko-Fa- menian-Turney carbonate complexes, and the aera­ tion zone as well.

Accessible for people underground space can be

divided into the chambers of natural origin and the artificial ones appeared as a result of human activity. First of all, caves, grottoes and so on belong to the accessible cavities of natural origin. In Prikamyie there are about 40 objects of that type, legally regis­ tered and approved as the special preserved territo­ ries.

No doubt that the most famous and popular among the underground karst formations of Perm Krai is the Kungur ice cave (KIC). The Kungur ice cave is one of the most famous caves not only in Rus­ sia but in the whole world. UNICEF has registered KIC in the list of caves of an excursion type. The lar­ gest number of visitors of KIC was registered in 80s of the last century (up to 500 thou people in the record 1986 year). Then the number of visitors re­ duced sharply (to 36 thou people in 1995), which was followed by a new rise of attendance and reached 100 thou people in 2002.

Mining openings of the Upper-Kama potash salt mines can be considered to be the largest objects of use of the underground accessible cham­ bers of the anthropogenous character in Perm Krai. Specific attributes of potash-sodium salts and rock mass in general, mining-geological features of salt bearing deposit and mining-technical parameters of its exploitation determine several possible direc­ tions of use. It may be used for burying and storing of domestic and commercial wastes, for construc­ tion of different types of repositories (of foodstuffs and non-food products and goods), as speleotherapeutic clinics, for organization of sport, excursion, cultural and training measures and so on.

Mineral resources exploitation has become not only one of the main leading factors of Perm region development but it significantly affected the ecolo­ gical situation and the conditions of life and activity of the population. It has specifically affected the large town-industrial agglomerations (BereznikiSolikamsk, Kizel-Gubakha) where the main compo­ nents of the infrastructure are mining enterpri­ ses. Lasting technogenous works connected with mining and processing of mineral resources in these areas brought to significant technogenous transfor­ mation of the natural geosystems and radical evolu­ tional transformation of geological environment into natural-technogenous system actively and signifi­ cantly affecting all the elements of the environmen­

tal natural surroundings. The most significant con­ sequences of technogenous processes in the ecolo­ gical part are connected with the disturbances of na­ tural landscapes and environmental pollution.

Withdrawal of the land resources often accom­ panied by full destroying of biota on that lands is connected not only with the construction and func­ tioning of the objects of engineering-technical infra­ structure of the mining enterprises but also with the necessity to locate on the surface the significant volume of commercial wastes obtained in the course of mining and enriching of mineral resources. Thus in Perm Krai the mining enterprises’ part of the an­ nual amount of commercial wastes is 87—88% out of 31 —37 ml tn, moreover their larger part is stored

on the earth’s surface. By today the total volume of accumulated wastes of the mining industry amounts to over 660 ml tn. Besides the fact that they are lo­ cated on the significant part of land resources they are the most powerful source of pollutants’ emission into the environment. Hydrosphere is the element of nature mostly sensitive to pollution, it is the main pollutants’ transport and to a high extent determines the scale of pollution. So, the major part of the technogenous pollution of the pre-surface hydrosphere (71 %) out of 135 registered sites of origin of the technogenous pollution is connected with the subsur­ face use.

Despite the fact that coal mining was stopped and the mines of Kizel basin were closed down, ecologi­ cal problems have not been only preserved but be­ came even more acute. The significant area of the disturbed lands (over 720 ha) and a huge volume of the accumulated wastes of the mining and separa­ tion industries (53 dumps with the volume of stored rock amounts to over 24 ml m3) are the main ecolo­ gical problems.

The results of the ecological geochemical inves­ tigations of the Kizel basin dumps of different ages register the elevated content of toxic microelements, a significant part of which is present in the form of geochemically-active mobile forms and has got the increased migration property. The soluble com­ pounds formed as a result of physical weathering, oxidization, solution, hydrolysis, hydration and other processes developing in the coal-rock dumps enter the natural geosystems. Dump drainages have an acid reaction (p H = l—3) with the mineralization of 50 g/1 and more. They have got the significant con­ centrations of sulphate-ion, ferrum, aluminium, heavy metals. The summary amount of the contami­ nating substances entering the natural geosystems from one hectare of a dump surface amounts to 2.0— 2.5 thou tn per year. The upper horizons of the soil cover and the areas of the relief lowering, depositing pollutants contained in the migration flows are sub­ jected to the main contamination. Many rock dumps are located on the riverbanks that cause the entering of their matters into the streams and further trans­ portation in the water flows to large distances.

Another negative factor influencing the ecologi­ cal situation of the Kizel basin is the self-outpou­ ring of pit waters on the earth’s surface from the flooded workings. Pit waters have 4—11 g/1 mine­ ralization, and are characterized by the increased acidity (pH=2.3—3.5), high content of sulphates (up to 3—7g/1), ferrum (900—2500 mg/1), aluminum (130—420 mg/1), and above-permissible content of

the series of microelements (Be, Co, Li, Ni, Mn, Pb, Zn and others). Today the self-outpouring of pit wa­ ters happens at 16 places of the Kizel basin, and the summary volume of the entering into the rivers amount to 2.5 thou m3/hour. In 19 rivers the ente­ ring has been registered, and 15 of them are ex­ cluded from the economic-utility water-use. The probability of acid pit waters leakage into adjacent water-bearing horizons and complexes used for water supply of the settlements is the serious threat.

The given above data are an evidence that the negative attack of the technogenous processes ofthe mining industry on the environmental situation in the Kizel basin remains even at the post-exploitation stage. To eliminate these consequences it requires to perform special works to recultivate the waste rock dumps and contaminated land resources; to clean the banks and streams of the rivers and water reservoirs; to catch and clean the pit waters outpou­ ring residual and drainage stocks of dumps and some other measures.

The main feature of the Upper-Kama Deposit ex­ ploitation is the fact that the mining production and Berezniki-Solikamsk town-industrial agglomeration have the common territory. That means that the mi­ ning of some separate fields takes place directly un­ der the town, the industrial sites and engineering objects are the components of the town infrastruc­ ture. One of the main factors, which significantly affects the state of the natural geosystems is the technogenous transformation of the nature land­ scapes and formation of the significant volumes of liquid and solid wastes of the separating plants, which are the sources of emission of pollutants of wide spectrum into the environment.

The deformation of the earth’s surface taking place over the worked out spaces sometimes brings to the formation of the flooded zones that cause the degradation of wood vegetation. The activization of the erosion-undermining processes, bringing to the formation of sinks on the earth’s surface with a dia­ meter up to 2.5 and 0.3—0.4 m deep, have been regis­ tered at some isolated places of the fields above the worked out space. Even greater scales of the earth’s surface deformation have been registered in the accidental area of BPIMO-3 (Berezniki Potash-In­ dustrial Mine Office). The main danger of these phe­ nomena is connected with its possible affect on the stability of the ground engineering objects of the in­ dustrial and residential areas of the towns of Berezni­ ki and Solikamsk.

The separating and processing of potash ores is accompanied by the accumulation of the large volu-

mes от the halite wastes stored in salt dumps, the clayey-salt slimes, and salt wastes poured into the slime repositories. Despite the fact that part ot the halite wastes is used in the production and filled the worked out spaces, the total accumulated volume of wastes of the potash industry today amounts to over 426 ml tn, and they are located on the territory over 1230 ha.

The analysis of the content of the formed clayeysalt slimes has shown that they represent the com­ plex multi-component organic-mineral complexes containing the wide range of micro-components be­ longing to the category of écologie toxicants. Some of them are organic floto-reactants used in the sepa­ rating of potash ores, many of them are actually not studied in the ecological respect.

The specific feature of the wastes is the high con­ tent of the lightly dissoluble minerals that deter­ mines that the evacuation of the pollutants con­ tained in wastes takes place mostly in the water phase. In spite of the measures to hydro-isolate the slime-dump objects practically at all of them the fil­ tration leaks of brines are registered, in some cases the volumes amount to hundred thousand cubic me­ ters per year. As a result of these processes practi­ cally around all the places of wastes dumps the large aureoles of hydrosphere pollution have been formed.

To improve the existing ecological situation is impossible without implementing of some special measures of utilization of the accumulated wastes of the potash industry (halite wastes’ filling into the worked out space; underground storage of clayeysalt slimes in the special chambers; dumping of waste brines into the absorbing horizons).

The major part of the oil-deposits exploited in Perm Krai has been exploited over 40 years. Long period of the exploitation and the high level of floo­ ding of the mined products have brought to the situation when the large part of the oil-prospecting equipment is corrosion-prone, and as a result the threat of emergency situations resulting in the envi­ ronmental pollution has increased. The characteris­ tic of the oil deposit exploration leads to the situa­ tion when the main technogenous loading affects the subsurface hydrosphere (up to 2.0—2.5 km).

The most significant volumes of the negative af­ fect on the geological environment are registered at the oil deposits, the wells of which were drilled and started to exploit before the 70s of the last century. The well constructions used at that time and the low quality of their grouting did not guarantee the relia­ ble isolation of the producing horizons from the overlying parts of the section, that caused the signi­

ficant volumes of fluids leaking out. In some cases these processes has brought to the formation of the high-headed technogenous horizons in the over­ producing part of the section, manifested on the earth’s surface as gryphons and surface oil-manifes­ tât ions.

The particularity complicated ecological situa­ tion was formed at the Ossa deposit where two un­ derground nuclear explosions (UNE) were made in 1969. Waters leaked into the UNE centers brought to the contamination of the output products with ra­ dio-nuclides (tritium, caesium-137, strontium-90) and the formation of many underground and surface centers of radioactive pollution. Large volume of the developed radio-nuclides concentrated in the cham­ bers of explosions allows to consider them as burial grounds of the radioactive wastes of long existence period representing the zones of potential risk of uncontrolled radioactive pollution of the environ­ ment. The same is true for Gezh deposit where five UNE were made in the period of 1981 — 1987.

The presented data makes evident that the exploi­ tation of HCs resources is accompanied by the sig­ nificant technogenous loadings, mostly on the geo­ logical situation, and the affect of these processes on the environment has to a large extent an indirect character. At the same time it is necessary to men­ tion that the relaxation of the natural-technogenous geo-hydrodynamic systems formed in the geological structure can lead to the negative displaying of the technogenesis processes even at the post-exploita­ tion stage. This requires the need to implement some special nature protecting technological measures at the final stage of the deposit mining (over-abando­ ning of the defect wells, discharge of the formed high-head technogenous horizons, removal of the surface pollution and so on).

Mining of the other types of mineral resources (chromites, gold, diamonds, building materials) con­ fined to the pre-surface part of the section is accom­ panied by the lower level of the technogenous affect on the natural geosystems and, as a rule, do not cause the radical degeneration of life conditions.

The analytical treatment of the ecological situa­ tion in the mining areas of Perm Krai enables to name the following main problems whose solution have the priority significance:

—to use the accumulated wastes of the mining production;

—to reduce the volumes of the surface storing of the newly formed wastes;

—to reduce the volumes of the direct dump of the polluted flows into the surface channels;

—to purify and use pit waters;

—to exclude the negative affect of the deforma­ tion processes on the mining objects by way of fil­ ling of the worked out space;

—to recultivate the disturbed lands to remove the secondary sources of pollution;

—to organize the geoecological registration

of the objects of the technological genesis of the miningand oil-recovering types aimed at the revision of the characteristic properties of the technogenous processes in the geological environ­ ment;

—to improve the monitoring systems of the mi­ neral deposits.

Large volumes of the production and processing of the mineral resources were provided by the mul­ ti-branch development of the mining industry of the Western Urals. The total output of the rock mass amounted to 90—100 ml tn/year, including the mi­ ning of coal — 3.5—4.0 ml tn, potash-magnesium salts — 35—40 ml tn and chromic ores — 150— 200 thou tn; the open-mining of the mineral resour­ ces for the production of building materials, fluxes and industrial stones was 40 ml tn; oil recovery amounted to 10 ml tn with the volume of drilling works about 1 ml m/year. The total consumption of explosive materials amounted to 5—7 thou tn/year. The number of stuff engaged in that branch was 50— 70 thou people.

The intensive development of the mining bran­ ches, large outputs, difficulties of the mining-geo­ logical and mining-technological conditions deter­ mined the high level of trauma and accident rate. 30 accidents (sometimes more) with mortal outcome and over eight emergencies of different categories happened every year. The majority of accidents and emergencies took place at enterprises of under­ ground mining.

During the run time of the Kizel coal basin (be­ fore 2000) 45—60% of all accidents and emergen­ cies in industry happened at the coal mining enter­ prises of Kizel. The number of mortal outcomes per 1 ml tn of coal output and per 1000 working people exceeded the mean numbers in the coal industry of the country in general. In 1994 for the first time in the country mining impacts were regis­ tered at the mines of Kizel basin. The total number of those phenomena was over 400.

Emergencies of hard consequences happened at the mining of the Upper-Kama potash Salts Deposit characterized by very complicated mining-geologi­ cal conditions. At the potash mines 26 accidents with mortal outcomes happened only in the period of 1963—1970: four flashes (explosions) of combus­ tible gas, about 20 sudden ejections of salt and gas. The main reasons of injuries were roof falls caused

by the breaks of timbering plans and roof control; use of the dangerous and toil-consuming drilling-explo­ sion technique of extracting; violation of industrial safety regulations in the course of exploitation of technological transport.

The occupational trauma and accident rates in­ creased as a result of the accelerated putting into operation of new enterprises. So, only in the period 1970—1983 there were 7—17 accidents with mortal outcome, up to eight emergencies of different cate­ gories, 11 flashes and explosions of combustible ga­ ses happened annually. The most dramatic emergen­ cies were the following: in June 4, 1980 at the mine BPIMO-3 the explosions of combustible gas (methane+hydrogen) happened in the extraction drift (5 lives were lost); ignition of the rubber-rope conveying belt on the drive of the conveyer 2LU-120 and the fire in the conveyer drift 6VP took place in December 3,1980 (5 lives were lost).

About 200 of gas-dynamic phenomena occurred at the mines. As a result of investigations the mecha­ nisms of their origin and development, ways of prog­ nosis and prevention have been established. Despite the high-delivery fan installations with a capacity up to 20—30 thou m3/m in for the main ventilation, zones of difficult ventilation appear due to large air leakages. The majority of flashes and explosions of combustible gases (80%) took place in the blind workings. That demanded the development of «Spe­ cial measures for safety mining at the Upper-Kama potash Salt Deposit in gas regime conditions» and the revision of some requirements of the Unified Safety Regulations (USR).

The high level of risk of emergency situations of the natural and technogenous character is proved by the following facts:

—the most serious accident connected with the break of water-protecting thickness (WPT) and ground waters’ outburst to the mine BPIMO-3 in January —March 1986;

—the accident at the mine SPIMO-2 in January 1995 as a result of subsidence of the worked thick­

ness into the exhausted space xvith th ' fo rm a ta i of trough on the earth’s surface 4.5 m deep and 400 m in diameter. That accident threatened the existence of two mines (SPIMO-2 and SPÏMO-1) as a result of the barrier pillar destroying.

The opencast mining is accompanied with the po­ tential hazards during explosion works, works to secure the safety of explosives, works to preserve safe angles of bench reposes and bermes, exploitation of the technological transport and electric equipment. It is necessary to provide the monitoring of safety of

hydsaulic structures, the operating control of the state of dams, the existence of plans to remove pos­ sible accidents at the work of dredges, land dredges and separating plants.

The exploitation of the subsurface wealth de­ mands timely estimation, prognosis of the danger rate of the affect of natural and technogenous factors to provide the safe mining production that has got the great economic and social signifi­ cance for mining enterprises and the region on the whole.

Before the organization of professional educa­ tional institutions the process of training in mining business was presented in a form of family traditions or workshop apprenticeship. In extremely rare ca­ ses the knowledge were written down in manuscripts. From the middle of 17th century Russia started to use foreign experts invited from abroad or war captives to train high-qualified specialists.

At the beginning of the 18th century V. N. Tatishtchev organized the net of mining and metallurgi­ cal schools in the Urals region. Mining and metal­ lurgical schools were the educational institutions at mining plants training workers and foremen for mining industry. First mining and metallurgical schools were founded at Kungur (1721), Uktussky and Alapaevsk plants (in 1735 the school from Kun­ gur was moved into Yegoshikha), and by 1737 the schools were organized at all largest state plants of the Urals. In 1847 the second type of mining and metallurgical schools appeared — okrug (territorial division) colleges (institution providing specialist instruction at secondary level) were founded at each mining and metallurgical okrug. The best graduates of mining and metallurgical schools were accepted to okrug colleges.

In the second half of the 19th century the mining industry of the Urals was in decline that affected the situation at the mining and metallurgical schools. At that period the majority of mining and metallur­ gical schools suffered significant financing prob­ lems and a sharp lack of qualified teachers. Gradu­ ally many mining schools and okrug colleges stopped the training in a subject of «minerals, ores and mine rocks identification», and professions’ instruction as well. In 1879 mining and metallurgical schools were subjected to the Ministry of education and were reformed into two-grades’ and town colleges.

Modern mining-geological education in Perm

Krai, and in the Urals in general, is closely connec­ ted with the foundation of Perm University, which was opened on October 14,1916. At the same time a chair of mineralogy and geology (according to ano­ ther sources — chair of geology and mineralogy) was organized in the structure of the physics-mathema­ tics faculty of Perm University. In 1931 after the reorganization of Perm State University, the geolo­ gical department was founded according to the recommendation of academician A. D. Arkhangelsky, later (in 1933) renamed into the geological faculty, whose first dean was an associated profes­ sor V. K. Voskresensky.

In connection with rapid development of Kizel coal field and to provide it with specialists on Sep­ tember 2, 1929 the Presidium of the Urals regional executive authority adopted a decision to found Kizel industrial (mining) technical college. In a year its subsidiary was opened in Solikamsk.

The discovery of the «Second Baku» and rapid development of oil production in Prikamyie required a big amount of oil-experts of the secondary level. In this connection on March 19,1938 the oil techni­ cal college was organized in Perm (from 1933 — the oil college) training in the following subjects: «Geo­ logical exploration», «Oil wells drilling», «Oil wells exploitation».

Kungur oil college was started from the famous Kungur oil technical college named after Gubkin, organized on July 17, 1877. In the period from 1928 to 1950 this educational institution was called Kun­ gur machinery-building technical college, later transformed into Kungur oil college. Possibly the training of oil-business specialists had started before its official reforming as the first 13 technicians in the speciality «Oil-plant equipment» graduated in 1947, and 17 specialists of the department «Equip­ ment of oil-refining plants» in 1950. Soon Kungur

oil college was reorganized into Kungur automechanical college.

In 1953 in Gremiachinsk on the basis of the mi­ ning industrial school № 19, ihc mining industrial college № 4 was founded that in two years trained highly qualified workers of different specialities, in­ cluding mining branch («Operator of percussive ma­ chines», «Driver of mining electric locomotives», «Electrician of mining equipment» etc.). In 1955 first 95 specialists graduated. In 1962 the college was re­ formed into the town professional-technical college № 22, which admitted students after 8 grades of secondary school. A period of training in mining spe­ cialities was 4 years. In a year the college was com­ bined with the mining-industrial school № 29, after that the total number of students reached 400 peop­ le. From 1975 students could get not only profession but secondary education as well. Today the Profes­ sional college № 22 does not train workers of mi­ ning profile that caused by the closing of mines of Kizel coal field.

Mining Institute was opened in Perm on July 18, 1953. On the basis of Perm Mining Institute and Perm Tonight-school Machinery-building Institute, new institution — Perm Polytechnic Institute (PPI) was organized on July 15,1960. On December 7,1992 it was renamed into Perm State Technical University (PSTU).

In the second half of 20th century several institu­ tions of mining-geologic profile have been opened in Prikamyie region. So today in Krai exists multi-le­ vel system of this education — high, secondary, ele­ mentary and supplementary.

Geological faculty of PSU. 1080 students are trained at the faculty, including 670 — internal and 410 — external students. The multilevel system of education includes: bachelors at «Geology» specia­ lity (4 years of training); specialists (5 years of trai­ ning) at specialities of «Geology», «Geophysics», «Hydrogeology and engineering geology», «Geolo­ gy and geochemistry of fuel-bearing minerals», «Physical processes of mining and oil-and-gas indus­ try» (5.5 years of training); holders of MD in geology (6 years of training) in the programs «Litholo­ gy», «Regional geology», «Geology and geochemis­ try of raw materials», «Geophysical techniques of earth’s crust studies», «Mineralogy», «Ecologi­ cal geology», «Hydro-ecology», «Hydrogeology», «Geology and geochemistry of oil and gas», «Eco­ nomic geology», «Engineering geology». At the ex­ ternal department the training is at the speciality «Geophysics» (5.8 years of training).

Oil-mining faculty of PSTU, The training of en­

gineers is conducted in the following specialities: «Exploitation of raw materials’ deposits», «Oil and gas geology», «Oil and gas wells’ drilling», «Mine­ surveying business», «Applied geodesy», «Mining electric mechanics», «Electric drive and automation of commercial installations and technological sets».

There are nine sub-faculties: mine-surveying business and geographic information systems; ex­ ploitation of raw materials deposits; mining electric mechanics; electrification and automation of mi­ ning enterprises; oil and gas geology; exploitation of oil and gas fields; occupational safety and mining ventilation; oil and gas wells’ drilling; electric tech­ nologies and electric mechanics.

Berezniki subsidiary of PSTU, There are three forms of training: internal, night and external. The education is conducted in the specialities: «Under­ ground exploitation of raw materials’ deposits» and «Mining electric mechanics».

Perm oil college trains specialists in «Geologic exploration», «Oil wells’ drilling», «Oil wells exploi­ tation».

Kizel mining college. College prepares specialists in «Technical exploitation, maintaining and repair of electric and electric-mechanic equipment for mi­ ning», «Mine-surveying business», «Hydro-tech­ nical construction», «Technical exploitation main­ taining and repair of electric and electric-mechanic equipment» for different branches. The forms of training are internal and external.

Solikamsk mining-chemical college. A qualifi­ cation of «Technician» is given in the following specialities «Underground exploitation of rawmaterials’ deposits», «Assembling and technical exploi­ tation of industrial equipment», «Technical exploi­ tation maintaining and repairof electric and electricmechanic equipment», «Software of computer faci­ lities and automized systems».

Tchaikovsky commercial-humanitarian college.

College and its two (out of six) subsidiaries (Ossa town, Oktyabrsky settlement) trains in the speciality «Arrangements and exploitation ofoil-and-gas pipe­ lines and oil-and-gas repositories». A qualification of «Technician» is given at the end of the course.

Chernushka polytechnical college. The forms of training are internal, night and external. A qualifi­ cation of «Technician» is given in the specialities «Oil and gas fields’ exploitation», «Oil and gas wells’ drilling».

Professional high-school № 62 (Chernushka town). Fouryears’ elementary vocational training on the basis of secondary school (9 grades) in «Oil and gas fields’ exploitation» is given at this school.