- •Foreword
- •Cerebrum: Medial Views
- •Cerebrum: Inferior View
- •Basal Nuclei (Ganglia)
- •Thalamus
- •Cerebellum
- •Brainstem
- •Fourth Ventricle and Cerebellum
- •Accessory Nerve (XI): Schema
- •Arteries to Brain and Meninges
- •Arteries to Brain: Schema
- •Arteries of Brain: Inferior Views
- •Cerebral Arterial Circle (Willis)
- •Arteries of Brain: Frontal View and Section
- •Arteries of Brain: Lateral and Medial Views
- •Arteries of Posterior Cranial Fossa
- •Veins of Posterior Cranial Fossa
- •Deep Veins of Brain
- •Subependymal Veins of Brain
- •Hypothalamus and Hypophysis
- •Arteries and Veins of Hypothalamus and Hypophysis
- •Relation of Spinal Nerve Roots to Vertebrae
- •Autonomic Nervous System: General Topography
- •Spinal Nerve Origin: Cross Sections
- •Olfactory Nerve (I): Schema
- •Optic Nerve (II) (Visual Pathway): Schema
- •Oculomotor (III), Trochlear (IV) and Abducent (VI) Nerves: Schema
- •Trigeminal Nerve (V): Schema
- •Facial Nerve (VII): Schema
- •Vestibulocochlear Nerve (VIII): Schema
- •Glossopharyngeal Nerve (IX): Schema
- •Vagus Nerve (X): Schema
- •Accessory Nerve (XI): Schema
- •Hypoglossal Nerve (XII): Schema
- •Nerves of Heart
- •Autonomic Nerves and Ganglia of Abdomen
- •Nerves of Stomach and Duodenum
- •Nerves of Stomach and Duodenum (continued)
- •Nerves of Small Intestine
- •Nerves of Large Intestine
- •Nerves of Kidneys, Ureters and Urinary Bladder
- •Nerves of Pelvic Viscera: Male
- •Nerves of Pelvic Viscera: Female
- •Median Nerve
- •Ulnar Nerve
- •Radial Nerve in Arm and Nerves of Posterior Shoulder
- •Radial Nerve in Forearm
- •Sciatic Nerve and Posterior Cutaneous Nerve of Thigh
- •Tibial Nerve
- •Common Fibular (Peroneal) Nerve
- •Organization of the Brain: Cerebrum
- •Organization of the Brain: Cell Types
- •Blood-Brain Barrier
- •Synaptic Transmission: Morphology of Synapses
- •Synaptic Transmission: Neuromuscular Junction
- •Synaptic Transmission: Visceral Efferent Endings
- •Synaptic Transmission: Inhibitory Mechanisms
- •Synaptic Transmission: Chemical Synaptic Transmission
- •Synaptic Transmission: Temporal and Spatial Summation
- •Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF): Brain Ventricles and CSF Composition
- •Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF): Circulation of CSF
- •Spinal Cord: Ventral Rami
- •Spinal Cord: Membranes and Nerve Roots
- •Peripheral Nervous System
- •Autonomic Nervous System: Schema
- •Autonomic Nervous System: Cholinergic and Adrenergic Synapses
- •Hypothalamus
- •Limbic System
- •The Cerebral Cortex
- •Descending Motor Pathways
- •Cerebellum: Afferent Pathways
- •Cerebellum: Efferent Pathways
- •Cutaneous Sensory Receptors
- •Cutaneous Receptors: Pacinian Corpuscle
- •Sensory Pathways: I
- •Sensory Pathways: II
- •Sensory Pathways: III
- •Visual System: Receptors
- •Visual System: Visual Pathway
- •Auditory System: Cochlea
- •Auditory System: Pathways
- •Vestibular System: Receptors
- •Vestibular System: Vestibulospinal Tracts
- •Gustatory (Taste) System: Receptors
- •Gustatory (Taste) System: Pathways
- •Olfactory System: Receptors
- •Olfactory System: Pathway
- •Installing Adobe Acrobat Reader 5.0
NEUROPHYSIOLOGY |
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Vestibular System: Vestibulospinal Tracts |
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Excitatory |
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endings |
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Superior |
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Inhibitory |
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Medial |
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endings |
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Vestibular nuclei |
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Lateral |
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Ascending fibers in medial |
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Inferior |
Rostral |
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longitudinal fasciculi |
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Upper |
Trunk |
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limb |
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Ventral |
Dorsal |
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To |
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Lower |
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cerebellum |
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limb |
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Caudal |
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Somatotopical |
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pattern in lateral |
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vestibular nucleus |
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Vestibular |
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ganglion |
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and |
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Motor neuron |
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nerve |
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(controlling |
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neck muscles) |
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Medial vestibulo- |
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Lateral |
Fibers from cristae |
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spinal fibers in medial |
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(rotational stimuli) |
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vestibulospinal |
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longitudinal fasciculi |
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tract |
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Excitatory |
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Excitatory |
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endings |
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interneuron |
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to back |
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Inhibitory |
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muscles |
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interneuron |
Fibers from maculae |
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(gravitational stimuli) |
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Lower |
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part of |
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To flexor muscles |
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cervical |
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To extensor muscles |
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spinal cord |
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Inhibitory ending |
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To axial |
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To axial muscles |
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Inhibitory |
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muscles |
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Excitatory ending |
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ending |
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Lateral vestibulospinal tract |
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Lumbar part of |
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spinal cord |
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Inhibitory interneuron |
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Excitatory synapse |
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To flexor muscles |
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To extensor muscles |
© |
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FIGURE 2.37 VESTIBULOSPINAL TRACTS•
Sensory input from the vestibular apparatus is used to maintain stability of the head and to maintain balance and posture. Axons convey vestibular information to the vestibular nuclei in the pons, and then secondary axons distribute this information to five sites: spinal
cord (muscle control), cerebellum (vermis), reticular formation (vomiting center), extraocular muscles, and cortex (conscious perception). This figure shows only the spinal cord pathways.
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Gustatory (Taste) System: Receptors |
NEUROPHYSIOLOGY |
A. Tongue |
B. Section |
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Foliate |
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vallate |
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papillae |
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papilla |
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Taste buds |
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Duct of |
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gustatory |
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(Ebner’s) |
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gland |
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C. Taste bud |
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Epithelium |
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Fungiform |
Vallate papillae |
Basement membrane |
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papillae |
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Nerve plexus |
Microvilli
Nerve fibers
Taste pore emerging from taste buds
Taste cells
Desmosomes |
Large nerve fiber |
Basement membrane |
Fibroblast |
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Epithelium |
Granules |
Small nerve fiber |
Schwann cell |
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Microvilli |
Intercellular space Large nerve fiber |
Collagen |
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D. Detail of taste pore |
E. Detail of base of receptor cells |
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FIGURE 2.38 TASTE RECEPTORS•
Taste buds on the tongue respond to various chemical stimuli. Taste cells, like neurons, normally have a net negative charge internally and are depolarized by stimuli, thus releasing transmitters that depo-
larize neurons connected to the taste cells. A single taste bud can respond to more than one stimulus. The four traditional taste qualities that are sensed are sweet, salty, sour, and bitter.
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NEUROPHYSIOLOGY |
Gustatory (Taste) System: Pathways |
Mesencephalic nucleus
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Motor nucleus of trigeminal n.
Pons
Greater petrosal n.
Geniculate ganglion
Facial (VII) n. and
Nervus inermedius
Rostral part of nucleus of solitary tract
Glossopharyngeal (IX) n.
Lower part of medulla oblongata
Petrosal (inferior) ganglion of glossopharyngeal n.
Nodose (inferior) ganglion of vagus n.
Vagus (X) n.
FIGURE 2.39 TASTE PATHWAYS•
Ventral posteromedial (VPM) nucleus of thalamus
Sensory cortex (just below face area)
Lateral hypothalamic area
Amygdala
Pontine taste area
Trigeminal (V) n.
Maxillary n.
Mandibular n.
Pterygopalatine ganglion
Otic |
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ganglion |
Lingual n. |
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Chorda tympani
Fungiform papillae
Foliate papillae
Valiate papillae
Epiglottis
Larynx
Superior laryngeal n.
©
Depicted here are the afferent pathways leading from the taste receptors to the brainstem and, ultimately, to the sensory cortex in the postcentral gyrus.
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Olfactory System: Receptors |
NEUROPHYSIOLOGY |
Olfactory |
A. Distribution |
bulb |
of olfactory |
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epithelium |
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(blue area) |
Lateral nasal wall
Cribriform plate of ethmoid bone
Septum
B. Schema of section through olfactory mucosa
Cribriform plate
Schwann cell
Olfactory gland
Unmyelinated olfactory axons
Basement membrane
Sustentacular cells
Endoplasmic reticulum
Nucleus
Olfactory cells
Dendrites
Terminal bars (desmosomes)
Olfactory rod (vesicle)
Villi
Cilia
Mucus
©
FIGURE 2.40 OLFACTORY RECEPTORS•
The sensory cells that make up the olfactory epithelium respond to odorants by depolarizing. Like taste buds, an olfactory cell can respond to more than one odorant. There are six general odor
qualities that can be sensed: floral, ethereal (e.g., pears), musky, camphor (e.g., eucalyptus), putrid, and pungent (e.g., vinegar, peppermint).
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