Сraig. Dental Materials

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Jsrgensen KD, Wakumoto S: Occlusal amalgam fillings; marginal defects and secondary caries, Odont Tskr 76:43, 1968.

Katz JL, Grenoble DE: A composite model of the elastic behavior of dental amalgam,

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Mahler DB, Adey JD, Marek M: Creep and corrosion of amalgam, J Dent Res 61:33, 1982.

Mahler DB, Adey JD, Marshall SJ: Effect of time at 37 degrees C on the creep and metallurgical characteristics of amalgam, J Dent Res 66:1146, 1987.

Mahler DB, Marantz RL, Engle JH: A predictive model for the clinical marginal fracture of amalgam, J Dent Res 591420, 1980.

Mahler DB, Nelson LW: Factors affecting the marginal leakage of amalgam, J A m Dent Assoc 108:50, 1984.

Mahler DB, Terkla LG, van Eysden J et al: Marginal fracture vs mechanical properties of amalgam, J Dent Res 49:1452, 1970.

Mahler DB, van Eysden J, Terkla LG: Relationship of creep to marginal fracture of amalgam, J Dent Res 54:183, 1975.

Malhotra ML, Asgar K: Physical properties of dental silver-tin amalgams with high and low copper contents, J A m Dent

Assoc 96:444, 1978.

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McCabe JF, Carrick TE: Dynamic creep of dental amalgam as a function of stress and number of applied cycles, J Dent Res 66:1346, 1987.

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J Oral Rehabil14:27, 1987.

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tin phase in dental amalgam J Dent Res 46:457, 1967.

Zardiackas, LD, Anderson L, Jr: Crack propagation in conventional and high copper dental amalgam as a function of strain rate, Biomater 7:259, 1986.

Dental Amalgam-Retention and Bonding

Barkmeier WW, Gendusa NJ, Thurmond JW et al: Laboratory evaluation of Amalgambond and Amalgambond Plus, Am J Dent 7:239, 1994.

Ben-Amar A, Liberman R, Rothkoff Z et al: Long term sealing properties of Amalgambond under amalgam restorations, Am J Dent 7:141, 1994.

Boyer DB, Roth L: Fracture resistance of teeth with bonded amalgams, Am J Dent

791, 1994.

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Edgren BN, Denehy GE: Microleakage of amalgam restorations using Amalgambond and Copalite, Am J Dent 5:296, 1992.

Fischer GM, Stewart GP, Panelli J: amalgam retention using pins, boxes, and Amalgambond, Am J Dent 6:173, 1993.

Hadavi R, Hey JH, Strasdin RB et al: Bonding amalgam to dentin by different methods,

J Prosthet Dent 72:250, 1994.

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Nuckles DB, Draughn RA, Smith TI: Evaluation of an adhesive system for amalgam repair: bond strength and porosity, Quint Internat 25:829, 1994.

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59:397, 1988.

Staninec M: Retention of amalgam restorations: undercuts versus bonding, Quint Internat 20347, 1989.

Dental Amalgam-Mercury and Biocompatibility Issues

Abraham JE, Svare EW: The effect of dental amalgam restorations on blood mercury levels, J Dent Res 63:71, 1984.

American Dental Association Council on Scientific Affairs: Dental amalgam-update on safety concerns, J A m Dent Assoc

129:494, 1998.

Arenholt-Bindslev D: Environmental aspects of dental filling materials, Eur J Oral Sci 106:713, 1998.

Bakir F, Damluji SF, Amin-Zaki L et al: Methyl mercury poisoning in Iraq, Science 181:230, 1973.

Berglund A: Estimation of the daily dose of intra-oral mercury vapor inhaled after release from dental amalgam, J Dent Res 69:1646, 1990.

Berglund A, Bergdahl J, Hansson Mild K: Influence of low frequency magnetic fields on the intra-oral release of mercury vapor from amalgam restorations, Eur J Oral Sci 106:671, 1998.

Berlin MH, Clarkston TW, Friberg LT et al: Maximum allowable concentrations of mercury vapor in air, Lakartidningen 643628, 1967.

Berry TG, Nicholson J, Troendle K. Almost two centuries with amalgam: where are we today?J Am Dent Assoc 125:392, 1994.

Berry TG, Summitt JB, Chung AKH et al: Amalgam at the new millennium, J A m Dent Assoc 129:1547, 1998.

Birke G, Johnels AG, Plantin L - 0 et al: Hg i livsmedel (3): Metylkvicksilverforgiftning genom fortaring av fisk? [Hg in food (3): Methyl mercury poisoning through eating fish?]

Lakartidningen 645628, 1967. Bolewska J, Holmstrup P, Moller-Madsen B

et al: Amalgam-associated mercury accumulations in normal oral mucosa, oral mucosal lesions of lichen planus and contact lesions associated with amalgam, J Oral Pathol Med 19:19, 1990.

Brune D: Corrosion of amalgams, Scand J Dent Res 89:506, 1981.

Burrows D: Hypersensitivity to mercury, nickel and chromium in relation to dental materials, Internat Dent J 36:30, 1986.

Chang SB, Siew C, Gruninger SE: Factors affecting blood mercury concentrations in practicing dentists, J Dent Res 71:66, 1992.

Chew CL, Soh G, Lee AS et al: Comparison of release of mercury from three dental amalgams, Dent Mater 5:244, 1989.

Clarkson TW: The toxicology of mercury, Cm't Reviews i n Clinical Lab Sci 34:369, 1997.

Consumer Reports: The mercury in your mouth 56(5): 316, 1991.

Council on Dental Materials and Devices: Recommendations in mercury hygiene, J A m Dent Assoc 92:1217, 1976.

Council on Dental Materials, Instruments, and Equipment: Safety of dental amalgam, J A m Dent Assoc 106519, 1983.

Corbin SB, Kohn WG: The benefits and risks of dental amalgam: current findings reviewed. J A m Dent Assoc 125:381, 1994.

Cox SW, Eley BM: Further investigations of the soft tissue reaction to the gamma 1 phase (Ag,Hg,) of dental amalgam, including measurements of mercury release and redistribution, Biomater 8296, 1987.

Cox SW, Eley BM: Further investigations of the soft tissue reaction to the gamma 2 phase (Sn,-,Hg) of dental amalgam, including measurements of mercury release and redistribution, Biomater 8:301, 1987.

Cox SW, Eley BM: Mercury release, distribution and excretion from subcutaneously implanted conventional and high-copper amalgam powders in the guinea pig, Arch Oral Biol32:257, 1987.

Cox SW, Eley BM: Microscopy and x-ray microanalysis of subcutaneously implanted conventional and high-copper dental amalgam powders in the guinea pig,

Arch Oral Biol32:265, 1987.

Cox SW, Eley BM: The release, tissue distribution and excretion of mercury from experimental amalgam tattoos, Br J Exp Pathol 67:925, 1986.

Craig RG: Biocompatibility of mercury derivatives, Dent Mater 2:91, 1986.

Danscher G, Horsted-Bindslev P, Rungby J: Traces of mercury in organs from pri-

mates with amalgam fillings, Exp Mol Pathol 52:291, 1990.

Ekstrand J, Bjorkman L, Edlund C et al: Toxicological aspects on the release and systemic uptake of mercury from dental amalgam, Eur J Oral Sci 106:678, 1998.

Eley BM, Cox SW: Renal cortical mercury levels associated with experimental amalgam tattoos: effects of particle size and amount

of implanted material, Biomater 8:401, 1987. Eley BM, Cox SW: The development of

mercuryand selenium-containing deposits in the kidneys following implantation of dental amalgams in guinea pigs, Br J Exp Pathol 67937, 1986.

Ferracane JL, Adey JD, Nakajima H et al: Mercury vaporization from amalgams with varied alloy compositions, J Dent Res 74:1414, 1995.

Ferracane JL, Engle JH, Okabe T et al: Reduction in operatory mercury levels after contamination or amalgam removal,

A m J Dent 7:103, 1994.

FDI Commission: Environmental issues in dentistry-mercury,

47:105, 1997.

Forsell M, Larsson B, Ljungqvist A et al: Mercury content in amalgam tattoos of human oral mucosa and its relations to local tissue reactions, Eur J Oral Sci 106:582, 1998.

Gronka PA, Bobkoskie RL, Tomchick GJ et al: Mercury vapor exposures in dental offices,

J A m Dent Assoc €31923, 1770.

Guthrow CE, Johnson CB, Lawless KB: Corrosion of dental amalgam and its component phases, J Dent Res 46:1372, 1767.

Haikel Y, Gasser P, Salek P et al: Exposure to mercury vapor during setting, removing, and polishing amalgam restorations,

J Biomed Mater Res 24:1551, 1770.

Heintze U, Edwardsson S, Derand T et al: Methylation of mercury from dental amalgam and mercuric chloride by oral streptococci in vitro, Scand J Dent Res 71:150, 1783.

Holland GA, Asgar K: Some effects of the phases of amalgam induced by corrosion, JDent Res j3:1245, 1774.

Johansson C, Moberg LE: Area ratio effects on metal ion release from amalgam in contact with gold, Scand J Dent Res 79246, 1771.

Kaaber S: Allergy to dental materials with special reference to the use of amalgam and polymethylmethacrylate, Internat Dent J 40:357 1770.

Kaga M, Seale NS, Hanawa T et al: Cytotoxicity of amalgams, J Dent Res 67:1221, 1788.

Kaga M, Seale NS, Hanawa T et al: Cytotoxicity of amalgams, alloys, and their elements and phases, Dent Mater 7:68, 1771.

Kingman A, Albertini T, Brown LJ: mercury concentrations in urine and whole blood associated with amalgam exposure in a US military population, J Dent Res 77:60, 1778.

Kuntz WD: Maternal and cord blood background mercury level, A m J Obstet Gynecol143:440, 1782.

Kurland LT, Faro SN, Siedler H: Minamata disease, World Neurol 1370, 1960.

Laine J, Kalimo K, Forssell H et al: Resolution of oral lichenoid lesions after replacement of amalgam restorations in patients allergic to mercury compounds, Br J Dermatol 126:10, 1772.

Langolf GD, Chaffin DB, Henderson R et al: Evaluation of workers exposed to elemental mercury using quantitative test of tremor and neuromuscular function, A m Ind Hyg Assoc J 39:976, 1978.

Langworth S, Elinder CG, Gothe CJ et al: Biological monitoring of environmental and occupational exposure to mercury, Int Arch Occup Environ Health 63:161, 1771.

Lyttle HA, Bowden GH: The level of mercury in human dental plaque an interaction in vitro between biofilms of Streptococcus mutans and dental amalgam, J Dent Res 72:1320, 1773.

Lyttle HA, Bowden GH: The resistance and adaptation of selected oral bacteria to mercury and its impact on their growth, J Dent Res 72:1325, 1773.

Mackert Jr JR: Dental amalgam and mercury, J A m Dent Assoc 122:54, 1771.

Mackert Jr JR, Berglund A: Mercury exposure from dental amalgam fillings: absorbed dose and the potential for adverse health effects, Crit Reviews i n Oral Biol a n d Med

8:410, 1797.

Mackert JR, Jr, Leffell MS, Wagner DA et al: Lymphocyte levels in subjects with and without amalgam restorations, J A m Dent Assoc 122:47, 1771.

Mandel ID: Amalgam hazards: an assessment of research, J Am Dent Assoc 122:62, 1791.

Marek M: Acceleration of corrosion of dental amalgam by abrasion, J Dent Res 63:1010, 1784.

Marek M: Corrosion test for dental amalgam, J Dent Res 57:63, 1780.

Marek M: The effect of the electrode potential on the release of mercury from dental amalgam, J Dent Res 72:1315, 1773.

Marek M: The release of mercury from dental amalgam: the mechanism and in vitro testing, J Dent Res 67:1167, 1770.

Marek M, Hockman RE Okabe T: In vitro corrosion of dental amalgam phases, J Biomed Mater Res 10:787, 1976.

Marshall SJ, Lin JHC, Marshall GW: Cu,O and CuCl, . 3Cu(OH), corrosion products on copper rich dental amalgams, J Biomed Mater Res 16:81, 1782.

Martin MD, Naleway C, Chou H-N: Factors contributing to mercury exposure in dentists,

J A m Dent Assoc 126:1502, 1995.

326 Chapter II AMALGAM

Mateer RS, Reitz CD: Galvanic degradation of amalgam restorations, J Dent Res

51:1546, 1972.

Miller JM, Chaffin DB, Smith RG: Subclinical psychomotor and neuromuscular changes exposed to inorganic mercury, Anz Ind H1.g Assoc ~36(10):725,1975.

Moberg LE, Johansson C: Release of corrosion products from amalgam in phosphate containing solutions, Scand J Dent Res

99:431, 1991.

Molin M, Marklund S, Bergman B et al: Plasmaselenium, glutathione peroxidase in erythrocytes and mercury in plasma in patients allegedly subject to oral galvanism, Scand

J De~ztRes 953328 1987.

Molin M, Marklund SL, Bergman B et al: Mercury, selenium, and glutathione peroxidase in dental personnel, Acta Odontol Scand 47:383, 1989.

Mueller HJ, Bapna MS: Copper-, indium-, tin-, and calcium-fluoride admixed amalgams: release rates and selected properties, Dent Mater 6:256, 1990.

Okabe T, Ferracane J, Cooper C et al: Dissolution of mercury from amalgam into saline solution, J Dent Res 66:33, 1987.

Okabe T, Yomashita T, Nakajima H et al: Reduced mercury vapor release from dental amalgams prepared with binary Hg-In liquid alloys, J Dent Res 73:1711, 1994.

Olsson S, Bergman M: Daily dose calculations from measurements of intra-oral mercury vapor, J Dent Res 71:414, 1992.

Olsson S, Berhlund A, Bergman M: Release of elements due to electrochemical corrosion of dental amalgam, J Dent Res 73:33, 1994.

Olstad ML, Holland RI, Pettersen AH: Effect of placement of amalgam restorations on urinary mercury concentration, J Dent Res 691607, 1990.

Ott KH, Vogler J, Kroncke A et al: Mercury concentrations in blood and urine before and after placement of non-gamma 2 amalgam fillings, Dtsch Zahnarztl Z 44:551, 1989.

Palaghias, G: The role of phosphate and carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffers in the corrosion processes of the oral cavity, Dent Mater 1:139, 1985.

Pierce P, Thompson JF, Likosky WH et al: Alkyl mercury poisoning in humans, J Am Med Assoc 220:1439, 1972.

Pohl L, Bergman M: The dentist's exposure to elemental mercury vapour during clinical work wit amalgam, Act Odont Scand 53:1023, 1995.

Powell LV, Johnson GH, Bales DJ: Effect of admixed indium on mercury vapor release from dental amalgam, J Dent Res

68:1231, 1989.

Powell LV, Johnson GH, Yashar N et al: Mercuiy vapor release during insertion and removal of dental amalgam. Oper Dent 19:70, 1994.

Rao GS. Radchenko V, Tong YS: Reproductive effects of elemental mercury vapor in pregnant Wistar rats, Annual Session Program, American Association for Dental Re-

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Landworth S et al: Mercury in biological fluids after mercury removal, J Dent Res 77:615, 1998.

Sarkar NK, Park JR: Mechanism of improved corrosion resistance of Zn-containing dental amalgams, J Defzt Res 67:1312, 1988.

Saxe SR, Snowdon DA, Wekstein MW et al: Dental amalgam and cognitive function in older women: findings from the nun study, J Am Dent Assoc 126:1495, 1995.

Scarlett JM, Gutenmann WH, Lisk DJ: A study of mercury in the hair of dentists and dental-related professionals in 1985 and subcohort comparison of 1972 and 1985 mercury hair levels, J Toxic01Environ Health

253373, 1988.

Schmalz G, Schmalz C: Toxicity tests on dental filling materials, Int Dent J 31:185, 1981.

Skare I, Engqvist A: Urinary mercury clearance of dental personnel after a long-term intermission in occupational exposure, Swed Dent J 143255, 1990.

Snapp KR, Boyer DB, Peterson LC et al: The contribution of dental amalgam to mercury in blood, J Dent Res 68:780, 1989.

Syrjanen S, Hensten-Pettersen A, Nilner K:

In vitro testing of dental materials by means of macrophage cultures. 11. Effects of particulate dental amalgams and their constituent phases on cultured macrophages,

J Biomed Mater Res 20:1125, 1986.

Takaku S: Studies of mercury concentration in saliva with particular reference to mercury dissolution from dental amalgam into saliva, Gakho Shikwa 82:285, 1982.

Veron C, Hildebrand HF, Martin P: Dental amalgams and allergy, J Biol Buccale 14:83, 1986.

von Mayenburg J, Rakoski J, Szliska C: Patch testing with amalgam at various concentrations, Contact Dermatitis 24:266, 1991.

Impression materials are used to register or reproduce the form and relationship of the teeth and oral tissues. Hydrocolloids and synthetic elastomeric polymers are among the materials most commonly used to make impressions of various areas of the dental arch, whereas zinc oxide-eugenol and modeling compound are used less frequently. Each of these classes of materials has certain advantages and disadvantages. An understanding of the physical characteristics and the limitations of each material is necessary for their successful use in clinical

dentistry.

PURPOSE OF IMPRESSW ,

Impression materials are used to make an accurate replica of the hard and soft oral tissues. The area involved may vary from a single tooth to the whole dentition, or an impression may be made of an edentulous mouth. The impression gives a negative reproduction of the tissues, and by filling the impression with dental stone or other model material, a positive cast is made that can be removed after the model material has set. An impression and a stone cast made from it are shown in Fig. 12-1. Casts of the mouth are used to evaluate the dentition when orthodontic, occlusal, or other problems are involved, and in the fabrication of restorations and prostheses.

Usually the impression material is carried to the mouth in an unset (plastic) condition in a tray and applied to the area under treatment. When the impression material has set, it is removed from the mouth with the tray. The cast is made by filling the impression with dental stone or other model material. Sometimes the impression is electroformed with copper or silver to make a metal cast or model. The accuracy, detail, and quality of this final replica are of greatest importance. When the positive reproduction takes the form of the tissues of the upper or lower jaw and serves for the construction of dentures, crowns, bridges, and other restorations, it is described as a cast. The positive reproduction of the form of a prepared tooth constitutes a die for the preparation of inlays or bridge structures. When a positive likeness of the arch or certain teeth is reproduced for orthodontic treatment, it is sometimes described as a model, although the term cast is proper. On other occasions and in other branches of dentistry, these terms are used interchangeably. Sometimes impression materials are used to duplicate a cast or model that has been formed when more than one positive reproduction is required. Such impression materials are referred to as duplicating materials.

A variety of impression trays are used to make impressions. Examples of typical impression trays are shown in Fig. 12-2. The tray is placed so the material is brought into contact with the oral

tissues and held without movement until the impression material has set. The tray with the impression material is then removed from the mouth, and the impression is ready for making a positive replica. The clinical impression technique and the production of the cast vary with each impression material; details are described in appropriate textbooks.

DESIRABLE QUALITIES

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Contact with living tissues in the mouth and the needs of clinical procedures dictate critical requirements for the physical properties of dental impression materials. No impression material fulfills all these requirements, and the selection of the material best suited for a particular clinical situation and technique rests with the dentist.

The desirable properties of an impression can be summarized briefly as follows:

1.A pleasant odor, taste, and esthetic color

2. Absence of toxic or irritant constituents

3.Adequate shelf life for requirements of storage and distribution

4.Economically commensurate with the results obtained

5. Easy to use with the minimum of equipment

6.Setting characteristics that meet clinical requirements

7.Satisfactory consistency and texture

8.Readily wets oral tissues

9.Elastic properties with freedom from permanent deformation after strain

10.Adequate strength so it will not break or tear on removal from the mouth