IContributors

George R. Baran, PhD

Professor

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Temple University

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Stephen C. Bayne, PhD

Professor of Dentistry

Section Head of Biomaterials

Department of Operative Dentistry

School of Dentistry

University of North Carolina

Chapel Hill, North Carolina

Robert G. Craig, PhD

Marcus L. Ward Professor Emeritus

Department of Biologic and Materials Sciences

School of Dentistry

University of Michigan

Ann Arbor, Michigan

Joseph B. Dennison, DDS, MS

Marcus L. Ward Professor of Dentistry

Department of Cariology, Restorative Sciences

and Endodontics

School of Dentistry

University of Michigan

Ann Arbor, Michigan

Isabelle L. Denry, DDS, PhD

Associate Professor

Section of Restorative Dentistry,

Prosthodontics and Endodontics

The Ohio State University

College of Dentistry

Columbus, Ohio

Glen H. Johnson, DDS, MS

Professor

Department of Restorative Dentistry

University of Washington

Seattle, Washington

David H. Kohn, P ~ D

Associate Professor

Department of Biologic and Materials Sciences

and Biomedical Engineering

School of Dentistry

University of Michigan

Ann Arbor, Michigan

Andrew Koran,.m, DDS, MS

Professor Emeritus of Dentistry

Division of Prosthodontics

Department of Biologic and Materials Sciences

School of Dentistry

University of Michigan

Ann Arbor, Michigan

John M. Powers, PhD

Professor

Department of Restorative Dentistry and

Biomaterials

Health Science Center

Houston, Texas

John C. Wataha, DDS, PhD

Professor

Department of Oral Rehabilitation

Medical College of Georgia

School of Dentistry

Augusta, Georgia

The eleventh, and millennium, edition of Restorative Dental Materials continues to be a textbook designed for undergraduate dental students, and is also an excellent review of basic and applied information about restorative materials for dental practitioners and dental hygienists who are returning for graduate education. This text is also useful for general dental practitioners because it contains important information about recently developed dental materials.

Dr. John M. Powers is a coeditor of the eleventh edition. Dr. Powers earned a Ph.D. in the Dental Materials Department of the University of Michigan, was a faculty member of that department for a number of years, and is currently a professor in the Department of Restorative Dentistry and Biomaterials at The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston Dental Branch. He is also a coeditor of m e Dental Advisor.

We would like to welcome the following new contributors to the eleventh edition and thank them for their time and effort in improving the information presented: Dr. ~ e o r R~. eBaran of Temple University, Dr. Stephen C. Bayne of the University of North Carolina, Dr. Joseph B. Dennison of the University of Michigan, Dr. Isabelle L. Denry of the Ohio State University, and Dr. Glen H. Johnson of the University of Washington. We also acknowledge and thank Dr. David H. Kohn and Dr. Andrew Koran 111, both of the University of Michigan, for their continued valuable contributions, and Dr. John C. Wataha of the Medical College of Georgia for his increased contributions to the eleventh edition.

Two new chapters have been added to the eleventh edition: Chapter 8, Preventive Materials, and Chapter 10, Bonding to Dental Substrates. The increased importance of bonding to a variety of surfaces, not only tooth structure, in restorative dentistry has warranted a separate chapter for this topic. The basics of adhesion, the composition of bonding materials, and the application of materials to different surfaces are presented. Likewise, changes in chemotherapeutic agents, pit-and-fissure sealants, glass ionomers, and hybrid ionomers, plus improvements in athletic mouth protectors, justified placing these topics in a chapter entitled Preventive Materials.

All chapters have been updated; however, the ones that have undergone major revision are those discussing biocompatibility, dental alloys, casting of metals, composite restorative materials, impression materials, ceramics, metalceramics, and cements.

Special features, including problems and solutions, review paragraphs, and the addition of new and important literature references, continue to be presented. Outdated material has been deleted, and previous information has been condensed to provide space for new topics while maintaining the reasonable length of the textbook.

We especially thank PatriciaJ. Sellinger for her diligence and effort in preparing the final manuscript from such a variety of contributors.

Robert G. Craig

John M. Powers

IContents

1 I Scope and History of Restorative

Materials, 1

Robert G. Craig

SCOPE OF MATERIALS COVERED IN RESTORATIVE DENTISTRY, 2

Basic Sciences Applied to Restorative Materials, 2

Application of Various Sciences, 3

HISTORY, 4

Early History, 4

Medieval and Early Modern Period, 5 Beginning of the Dental Science-1600 To

1840, 7

The Period of Mechanical Improvement1840 To 1900, 10

Advances Since 1900, 12

Future Developments in Biomaterials, 15

2 I Applied Surface Phenomena, 19

Robert G. Craig

CHARACTERIZATION OF SOLID SURFACES, 20

THE COLLOIDAL STATE, 22

Nature of Colloids, 22 Typical Colloid Systems, 23 Gels, 23

Syneresis, 24

Emulsions, 24

DIFFUSION THROUGH MEMBRANES AND OSMOTIC PRESSURE, 24

ADSORPTION, ABSORPTION, AND SORPTION, 25

SURFACE TENSION AND WETTING, 25 CAPILLARY RTSE, 28

Penetration Coefficient, 29 Isolated Capillaries, 31

FORCES INVOLVED IN DENTURE

RETENTION, 32 ADHESION, 3 3

3 I Optical, Thermal, and Electrical

Properties, 37

John M. Powers

OPTICAL PROPERTIES, 38

Color, 38

Measurement of Color, 39

Pigmentation, 42

Metamerism, 43

Fluorescence, 43

Opacity, Translucency, and Transparency, 43

Index of Refraction, 44

Optical Constants, 44

THERMAL PROPERTIES, 47

Temperature, 47

Transition Temperatures, 47

Heat of Fusion, 50

Thermal Conductivity, 50

Specific Heat, 51

Thermal Diffusivity, 52

Coefficient of Thermal Expansion, 53

ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES, 54

Electrical Conductivity and Resistivity, 54

Dielectric Constant, 55

Electromotive Force, 56

Galvanism, 57

Electrochemical Corrosion, 58

Zeta-Potential, 59

OTHER PROPERTIES, 59

Tarnish and Discoloration, 59

Water Sorption, 60

Solubility and Disintegration, 60

Setting Time, 60

Shelf Life, 60

4 1 Mechanical Properties, 67

David H. Kohn

FORCE, 68

Occlusal Forces, 68

Forces on Restorations, 68

X CONTENTS

Summary of Occlusal Forces, 69

STRESS, 69

Types of Stress, 70

Strain, 70

STRESS-STRAIN CURVES, 71

Proportional and Elastic Limits, 73

Yield Strength, 74

Ultimate Strength, 75

Fracture Strength, 76

Elongation, 76

Elastic Modulus, 77

Poisson's Ratio, 78

Ductility and Malleability, 79

Resilience, 79

Toughness, 80

Fracture Toughness, 80

Properties and Stress-Strain Curves, 82

OTHER MECHANICAL PROPERTIES, 8 3

Tensile Properties of Brittle Materials, 83

Compressive Properties, 84

Shear Strength, 85

Bond Strength, 86

Bending, 86

Transverse Strength, 87

Permanent Bending, 89

Torsion, 89

Fatigue Strength, 90

VISCOELASTICITY, 91

Fluid Behavior and Viscosity, 91

Viscoelastic Materials, 94

Mechanical Models of Viscoelasticity, 95

Creep Compliance, 97

DYNAMIC MECHANICAL PROPERTIES, 98

Dynamic Modulus, 98

Impact Strength, 99

TEAR STRENGTH AND TEAR ENERGY, 99

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF

COMPOSITES, 100

SURFACE MECHANICAL PROPERTIES, 10 2

Hardness, 102

Nano-indentation, 107

Friction, 107 -

Wear, 109

STRESS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF DENTAL

STRUCTURES, 110

Two-Dimensional Photoelasticity, 110

Finite Element Analysis, 111

Summary, 112

SPECIFICATIONS FOR RESTORATIVE

MATERIALS, 1 1 3

American Dental Association

Specifications, 113

American Dental Association Acceptance

Program, 116

Index of Federal Specifications and

Standards, 116

5 1 Biocompatibility of Dental

Materials, 125

John C. Wataha

ANAT0MICA.L AND PATHOLOGICAL

ASPECTS OF ORAL TISSUES, 126

The Tooth, 126 Bone, 130 Periodontium, 133

Gingiva and Mucosa, 133

MEASURING BIOCOMPATIBILITY, 134

In Vitro Tests, 135

Animal Tests, 141

Usage Tests, 142

Correlation Among In Vitro, Animal, and Usage Tests, 143

Using In Vitro, Animal, and Usage Tests Together, 145

Standards That Regulate the Measurement of Biocompatibility, 147

BIOCOMPATIBILITY OF DENTAL MATERIALS, 14 8

Reactions of Pulp, 148

Reaction of Other Oral Soft Tissues to Restorative Materials, 155

Reaction of Bone and Soft Tissues to Implant Materials, 157

Summary, 158

6 1 Nature of Metals and Alloys, 163

John C. Wataha

CHEMICAL AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE OF METALS, 16 4

Atomic Structure, 165

Physical Properties of Metals, 167

ALLOYS AND PRINCIPLES OF

METALLURGY, 169

Phase Diagrams and Dental Alloys, 170

PROPERTIES OF ALLOYS, 1 7 8

Alloy Strengthening Mechanisms, 179

Properties of Casting Alloys, 180

Properties of Wrought Alloys, 180

7 1 Polymers and

Polymerization, 185

Robert G. Craig

BASIC NATURE OF POLYMERS, 18 6

Chemical Composition, 186

Molecular Weight, 186

Spatial Structure, 187

PREPARATION OF POLYMERS, 189

Addition Polymerization, 189

Condensation Polymerization, 192

Other Polymers, 195

- -

8 1 Preventive Materials, 199

Joseph B. Dennison and Robert G. Craig

CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC AGENTS, 200

Toothpastes, 200

Mouthwashes, 203

Fluoride Varnishes, 205

PIT-AND-FISSURESEALANTS, 205

Resin Sealants, 206

Glass Ionomer Sealants, 2 11

FLOWABLE COMPOSITES, 2 11

Manipulation, 2 12

GLASS IONOMERS, 212

Composition and Reaction, 2 12

Properties, 2 12

Manipulation, 2 14

HYBRID IONOMERS, 2 15

Composition and Reaction, 2 15

Properties, 2 16

Manipulation, 2 16

ATHLETIC MOUTH PROTECTORS, 217

Properties, 2 19

CONTENTS xi

Fabrication of Custom-Made Protectors, 219 Preparing a Mouth-Formed Mouth

Protector, 222

Care of Athletic Mouth Protectors, 222 Other Applications for Vacuum-Forming, 222

9 I Composite Restorative

Materials, 231

John M. Powers

ALL-PURPOSE COMPOSITES, 232

Composition, 233

Setting Reaction, 236

Packaging of Composites, 236

PROPERTIES OF COMPOSITES, 23 7

Overview, 237

Physical Properties, 237

Mechanical Properties, 240

Clinical Properties, 241

MANIPULATION OF COMPOSITES, 24 4

Pulpal Protection, 244

Etching and Bonding, 244

Dispensing, 245

Insertion, 245

Polymerization, 245

Finishing and Polishing, 246

COMPOSITES FOR SPECIAL

APPLICATIONS, 24 6

Microfilled Composites, 246

Packable Composites, 246

Flowable Composites, 247

Laboratory Composites, 247

Core Composites, 247

Provisional Composites, 248

Repair of Ceramic or Composite, 2 4 8

COMPOMERS, 248

Composition and Setting Reaction, 248

Properties, 249

Manipulation, 249

LIGHT-CURING UNITS, 249

Overview, 249

Quartz-Tungsten-Halogen(QTH) Light-Curing

Units, 249

Plasma-Arc Light-Curing Units, 250

Light-Emitting Diodes, 25 1

xii CONTENTS

10 1 Bonding to Dental

Substrates, 259

Stephen Bayne

PRINCIPLES OF ADHESION, 260

Adhesive Joints, 260

Adhesion Versus Bond Strength, 260

Interface Formation for Adhesion, 261

Mechanisms of Interfacial Debonding, 262

MEASUREMENTS OF BOND STRENGTH, 263

CHARACTERIZATION OF HUMAN ENAMEL

AND DENTIN, 264

Structure and Morphology of Enamel, 264

Structure and Morphology of Dentin, 266

ENAMEL AND DENTIN BONDING AGENTS

FOR DIRECT COMPOSITES, 270

Overview, 270

Composition, 271

Properties, 273

Manipulation, 275

BONDING SYSTEMS FOR OTHER

SUBSTRATES, 278

Amalgam, 278

Laboratory Composites, 278

Ceramic, 278

Composite Bonded to Cast Alloys, 279

Repair of Composite, Ceramic, and Porcelain-

Fused-to-Metal Restorations, 280

11 I Amalgam, 287

Glen H. Johnson

DENTAL AMALGAM ALLOYS, 288

Composition and Morphology, 288 Production, 290

Silver-Tin Alloy, 29 1

AMALGAMATION PROCESSES, 292

Low-Copper Alloys, 292

High-CopperAlloys, 292 Microstructure of Amalgam, 293

PROPERTIES OF AMALGAM, 295

ANSI/ADA Specification No. 1 for Amalgam Alloy, 295

Physical and Mechanical Properties, 295 Properties of Mercury, 301

MANIPULATION OF AMALGAM, 302

Selection of Alloy, 302

Proportions of Alloy to Mercury, 303 Mixing of Amalgam, 304 Condensation of Amalgam, 307 Factors Related to Finishing Amalgam

Restorations, 309 Bonding of Amalgam, 310

MERCURY AND BIOCOMPATIBILITY ISSUES, 310

Sources of Mercury, 31 1 Forms of Mercury, 3 1 1 Concentrations of Mercury, 312

Allergic Reactions and Disease, 313

Risks to Dentists and Office Personnel, 316

12 I Impression Materials, 329

Glen H. Johnson

PURPOSE OF IMPRESSION MATERIALS, 330

DESIRABLE QUALITIES, 331

TYPES OF IMPRESSION MATERIALS, 332

ALGINATE HYDROCOLLOIDS, 332

Composition and Chemistry, 333

Proportioning and Mixing, 336

Properties, 336

AGAR HYDROCOLLOIDS, 340

Chemical Ingredients, 340

Clinical Manipulation of the Sol-Gel, 342

Properties, 342

Agar-Alginate Combination Impressions, 344

Duplicating Impression Materials, 346

ELASTOMERIC IMPRESSION

MATERIALS, 348

Consistencies, 348

Mixing Systems, 248

Impression Techniques, 35 1

Composition and Reactions, 352

Setting Properties, 358

Mechanical Properties, 362

Wettability and Hydrophilization of Elastomeric

Impression Materials, 365

Disinfection of Elastomeric Impressions, 366

Relationship of Properties and Clinical Application, 368

BITE REGISTRATION MATERIALS, 369

Elastomeric Impression Materials, 369 Zinc Oxide-Eugenol and Impression

Plaster, 369

Wax Registrations, 369 Impression Compound, 370

DIE, CAST, AND MODEL MATERIALS, 373

Desirable Qualities of a Cast or Die Material, 373

Dental Plaster and Stone, 373

Dies Formed by the Electrodeposition of Metal, 374

Epoxy Die Materials, 377 Comparison of Impression and Die

Materials, 378

13 1 Gypsum Products and

Investments, 391

John M. Powers

CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL NATURE OF GYPSUM PRODUCTS, 392

Manufacture of Dental Plaster, Stone, and HighStrength Stones, 392

Chemical Reaction, 394

PROPERTIES, 397

Setting Time, 397 Viscosity, 399 Compressive Strength, 400

Surface Hardness and Abrasion Resistance, 401 Tensile Strength, 402

Reproduction of Detail, 403 Setting Expansion, 403

MANIPULATION, 404 CASTING INVESTMENTS, 404

Properties Required of an Investment, 406 Composition, 406

Calcium Sulfate-BondedInvestments, 407 Properties of Calcium Sulfate-Bonded

Investments, 407

Effect of Temperature on Investment, 408 Setting and Hygroscopic Expansion of Calcium

Sulfate-BondedInvestment, 410

CONTENTS xiii

Hygroscopic-Thermal Gold Casting Investment, 412

Investment for Casting High-Melting Alloys, 413

Brazing Investment, 4 15

Investment for All-Ceramic Restorations, 416

14 1 Waxes, 423

John M. Powers

WAXES, GUMS, FATS, AND RESINS, 424

Natural Waxes, 425

Synthetic Waxes, 428

Gums, 428

Fats, 428

Resins, 428

CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES OF

WAXES, 429

Melting Range, 429

Thermal Expansion, 430

Mechanical Properties, 431

Flow, 432

Residual Stress, 434

Ductility, 435

DENTAL WAXES, 435

Inlay Pattern Wax, 436

Casting Wax, 439

Resin Modeling Material, 440

Baseplate Wax, 441

Boxing Wax, 443

Utility Wax, 443

Sticky Wax, 444

Corrective Impression Wax, 445

Bite Registration Wax, 445

I 5 I Noble Dental Alloys and

Solders, 449

John C. Wataha

METALLIC EJXMENTS USED IN DENTAL ALLOYS, 450

Noble Metals, 450