- •Introduction
- •1 Physical geography
- •5 The Sumerian language
- •6 History and chronology
- •15 Calendars and counting
- •17 Everyday life in Sumer
- •19 A note on Sumerian fashion
- •21 Death and burial
- •22 Sumerian mythology
- •23 Trade in the Sumerian World
- •26 Sumer, Akkad, Ebla and Anatolia
- •27 The Kingdom of Mari
- •29 Iran and its neighbors
- •30 The Sumerians and the Gulf
- •32 Egypt and Mesopotamia
- •POSTSCRIPT
POSTSCRIPT
THE MESOPOTAMIAN MARSHLANDS
A PERSONAL RECOLLECTION
by Azzam Alwash
Igrew up on the fringes of the marshes of southern Iraq. My father, who was the district irrigation and flood engineer, used to take me into the marshes in the early spring. His mission was ostensibly to inspect flood control structures in preparation for the coming spring floods, but in reality he was just finding an excuse to go duck hunting. Given my father’s busy schedule, I loved to go with him as I had him all to myself in the boat, save for the boatman. We meandered in these small canals, surrounded with reeds that towered to the sky. The water was so clear you could see the fish scrambling away from the bow of the boat. Every now and then we would come to a large lake where the breeze hits your face and birds would fly into the sky shying
from the noise of the boat engine.
He went from one floating village to the next speaking to the people of the marshes. I had thought of them as backward people who lived with water buffalos and in houses made of reeds. We were not taught in school what these people represent and the connection they have with our common ancestors, the Sumerians, whose temple in Ur I visited many times on family picnics. I have vivid memories of picnics at the Ziggurat of Ur where as a little boy I picked at the reed bits stuck in the tar between the bricks of the stairs leading to the top of the temple. I had no knowledge at the time that I was picking at the work of the ancestors of the Marsh Arabs, the Sumerians, nor did I understand that the life style of the Marsh Arabs was little changed from that of builders of Ur.
Few people understand the organic connection between the mountains of Iraqi Kurdistan in the north and the plains of southern Iraq. The marshes and the plain of Mesopotamia are in fact a gift of the mountains of Kurdistan. The annual spring floods that result from the snowmelt in the mountains of Kurdistan bring huge amounts of water and soils, and deposit them in southern Iraq creating the plain that we now call Mesopotamian. The marshes of southern Iraq are essentially retention basins that are recharged every spring. The whole ecology and biodiversity of the area evolved around this annual event. The water comes in and flushes the brackish water that accumulates from the evaporation of the year before just as the reeds are coming out of winter hibernation. The depth of the water increases just in time for the spawning of fish and just as the birds are migrating. Furthermore, the lateral extent of the marshes is increased, covering the grasslands along the perimeter of the marshes with a new layer of silt and clay revitalizing these agricultural lands, which is why agriculture in southern Iraq did not need fertilization well into the twentieth century.
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It was not coincidental that agriculture first developed in the naturally renewable fertility of the grasslands surrounding the marshes. What the Sumerians did was invent an ingenious irrigation system which their Marsh Arabs inheritors continued using. Following the peak of the floods, they broadcast seeds on the higher lands that first start emerging as the floodwaters recede. These higher lands get covered twice a day as a result of the tidal actions of the Gulf that slows the flow in the Tigris and Euphrates, causing a “backup” of the water. The seeds thus get irrigated automatically without having to open canals or pump water. As the seedlings grow, however, the water recedes too far to allow for irrigation, and thus the seedlings are transplanted from the higher land into the low lying fields/grasslands. The irrigation system continues to provide water twice a day well into the early days of summer. By the time the floodwaters have receded, the roots of the seedling would tap into the groundwater and are in no need of the hard labor of irrigation.
In this way, the Sumerian culture gave us sustainable agriculture, which allowed settlements and eventually cities to be built, leading to laws and writing and all the trappings of culture. It is without irony that the marshes can be called the cradle of Western civilization.
Empires came and went, but the Marsh Arabs’ lifestyle did not change much. The rhythms of life in the marshes were predictable. Every now and then, the floods would cause rivers to change course and communities had to move when water is cut off but in essence, at the micro level, the fabric of society stood the test of time.
Then, in 1991, following the defeat of Saddam in Kuwait, the people of Iraq rebelled. The insurgence, however, was short lived as the cities were taken over by the Iraqi army, which was allowed to crush the rebels under the watchful eyes of the Western alliance. The remnants of the insurgency sought refuge in the marshes to hide from the wrath of the army and of Saddam. This was not a new phenomenon. The history of Iraq is filled with stories of rebels using the marshes as a place to hide. After all, life in the marshes was relatively easy from the natural abundance of water and food, but more importantly, the marshes protected the individuals and the small bands from the organized armies of whoever was controlling the empire at any given time in history.
In 1992, we began hearing rumours that the marshes were being drained. It was hard to believe that it is possible to drain 12,000 square kilometers but sure enough by 1997, satellite pictures showed with certainty that the marshes were being dried and only 700 square kilometers of marshes shared between Iraq and Iran remained. It turns out that at a time when Iraq was not allowed to sell a single drop of oil officially, Saddam’s regime literally used every piece of heavy equipment available in Iraq in a massive engineering project designed to direct the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates away from the marshes depriving them of their source of life. Six major canals were excavated and thousands of kilometers of embankments, the dirt of which had to be trucked in, were built up to increase the flow capacity of the rivers and tributaries of the Tigris and Euphrates. From the engineering point of view, it was a massive project that showed the versatility of the engineers of the Iraqi ministry of water resources. In less than seven years, only a fraction remained. In place of the unique water-world of the marshes was a salt-encrusted, barren moonscape incapable of supporting life. Deprived of their livelihood, the Marsh Arabs migrated en masse from the marshes. Those that wanted to stay were brought into compounds and became dependent on the government for
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their food through the ration program instituted under the “Food-for-Oil” program. A proud people became slaves to the power of the government and all resistance ceased.
The effects of drying the marshes were not limited to the Marsh Arabs of course. The Kuwaiti Institute for Scientific Research indicated that the drying of the marshes caused the temperature to increase locally by five degrees centigrade and worse still, all the silts and clays that used to be deposited in the marshes (not to say anything about the heavy metals and organic matter) were now being deposited in the Gulf covering the coral and oyster beds that Kuwaitis made their living off before the discovery of oil. Fish catches and shrimp landings were also reduced by 50 percent and the migratory birds had to go elsewhere to find a rest stop. A local indigenous bird, the Basra Reed Warbler, was found as far away as Israel in its attempt to find a suitable habitat. It is on this basis that the United Nations Environmental Program called the drying of the marshes “one of the world’s greatest environmental disasters of the last century.”
Prior to 2003, “experts” said that the marshes could not be restored as the soils had changed chemically or, alternatively, that the seed bank had been exhausted by the drying, or worse still that the Marsh Arabs did not want the marshes restored as they had become used to life in cities and wanted the trappings of modern life. After the toppling of Saddam in April 2003, however, this conjecture was challenged by facts on the ground. Surviving residents began breaking the embankments and opening the floodgates to allow water back into the marshlands. Re-flooded areas began sprouting reeds within six months, defying the predictions of experts.
It turns out that the Marsh Arabs did want the marshes back and acted with their own hands – literally. These people did not restore the marshes because they loved the environment per se, but rather they restored the marshes to regain a way of life that used the marshes as an independent source of food and income. When a people are dependent on the existence of a healthy marsh to live, they act to protect the wetlands. One of the Marsh Arabs I encountered upon return to Iraq told me that it was pride and self-respect that motivated him to flood a portion of the marsh close to his original village. He said, “I do not have to beg for daily work to feed my children. I can use my own hands to fish and harvest reeds so I can afford to feed my children.” This is the basis for a model of sustainable restoration. As long as the people of the marshes can depend on them for their livelihood, the marshes and nature will have their defenders.
It is tempting to see the story of the marshes as a sort of phoenix rising out of the ashes of destruction, but it is not all smooth sailing. In the 1990s Turkey began a massive program of building dams on the upper reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates, and it continues on its quest to harness the energy of nature. It is ironic that the world views dams as a source of sustainable renewable and supposedly clean energy. While it may be true that the hydroelectric power generated from dams reduces CO2 production (as compared to generating electricity from fossil fuel), however the effects downstream are devastating to natural systems.
One of the direct results of the dam building upstream is the loss of the flooding cycle, the pulse that drove the natural life rhythm of the Marsh Arabs and the nature on which they depend. The size of the restored marshes varied from a high of 65 percent in 2008 to as low as 35 percent in 2010. The water reaching the marshes is no longer full of silt and clay, but rather is salty as the farmers in Iraq, Syria, Turkey and Iran still use flood irrigation systems that result in the generation of a huge amount of
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salty drainage water that is dumped back into the rivers. This causes the water quality to depreciate downstream. Nevertheless, the marshes are hardy and the reeds of the marshes are a versatile plant that can even grow in a brackish environment. However, less hardy species such as frogs, fish, birds, and other flora and fauna are not capable of withstanding the changes and, as a result, the biodiversity of southern Iraq is changing as nature adapts to the changed flow system and water quality.
The way forward for the marshes and the Marsh Arabs, if they are to be preserved for future generations, depends on the nations sharing the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates. They must work together to modernize irrigation techniques and agree to an equitable system of water usage and distribution. This is needed not just to save the marshes, but to save agriculture and to promote regional cooperation.
The water resources issue, if viewed as a competition, will cause increased political tensions, when in fact it can be used as a tool to promote cooperation and mutual benefits. Solutions exist but they require thinking outside the box. Personally, as an activist who has worked on the restoration of the marshes and the protection of the cultural heritage of Iraq, I am hopeful that the marshes of southern Iraq and the culture they spawned will last well into the future. Even if the countries upstream do not cooperate, I predict the death of agriculture in Iraq (due to salinization) before the marshes are dried again. Moreover, given that the lifetime of dams is only 200 years, it is but a blink of an eye in geological terms. Watching the powers of nature in action over the last eight years, I am awed by its power and ability to adapt.
642
I N D E X
* Please note that page numbers relating to Notes have the letter ‘n’ following the page number. References to Figures or Tables are in italics.
Abu Salabikh: everyday life, 348, 351, 352, 353, 355; |
Akkadian period (c.2350–2200 BC), 85, 116; |
physical remains, 159–60, 161, 162, 167, 168; |
clergy, 247; craft industries, 413; emergence of |
scribes, 290, 297 |
scribe, 300; fashion, 386–7; iconography, 334; |
Abu Temple, Tell Asmar, 162 |
kings and queens, 205, 502–4; language, 95, |
Acropolis, 539–40, 546 |
100, 103–4, 300; mathematics, 309–10; north |
Adab (city), 140, 309, 449 |
Mesopotamia, third millennium, 468, 472; |
Adams, R. McC., 57, 69, 158, 398, 568; and |
scribes, 297–303; seals in, 333–6; and western |
hydraulic landscapes and irrigation systems, 40, |
Syria, 487–8; women in, 369–71 |
46; and physical geography, 19, 20–1, 29n; and |
Alexander the Great, 68 |
survey evidence, 134, 136; and Uruk period, 71, |
al Gailani, L., 378–92, 393 |
72–3, 74, 89n |
Algaze, G., 68–94, 411–12, 561–2 |
administrative texts, 34, 35, 42, 112, 123, 309; |
Al-Hai, Iraq, 504 |
clergy, 246; Early Dynastic period, 367; |
al-Hiba/Lagash, city mound, 33, 345, 352–3 |
royalty, images of, 211, 215–16; Ur III period, |
Alizadeh, A., 568 |
215–16 |
Alluvial Mesopotamia: physical geography, 14, 15, |
aeolian deflation, 20 |
16, 20, 22; Uruk period, 69, 70, 71–2, 75, 83, |
agency, and women, 359–77 |
87; see also Mesopotamia |
Age of the State Archives, 538 |
Amara, 19 |
agglutination, word structure, 96 |
Amar-Suen (king), 58, 64, 123, 231, 254, 259, 425 |
agriculture, 34, 64, 395; field management, 59–64; |
Ameri, M., 614 |
and land management (Ur III period), 55–65; |
Amiet, P., 335, 566 |
landscape, 57–9; typography and agricultural |
Ammisaduqa, 282 |
fields, 58–9; and water supply, 46–8 |
Amorite rule, Mari kingdom, 528–9, 532–6; glacis |
agro-pastoral economy, north Mesopotamia, |
and outer wall, 532–3; kings, history, 532; |
470–1 |
palace, 533, 534, 535, 536; temples, 536 |
Akalamdug, seals of, 119 |
Anatolia, 499, 500, 502, 505, 563; metal and |
akiti-festival, 238, 257 |
standardization of value, 508–9, 510; Syrian |
Akkad, state of: as “First World Empire,” 120–4; |
Bottle, 506, 507 |
settlement patterns, 131–52 |
Andrae, W., 78 |
643
–– Index ––
animal predation scenes, seals, 330 Annunitum (goddess), 317n
Anu Area, Uruk, 76, 78; public buildings, 180–1 Anubanini, rock relief, 215
Anzu (Akkadian poem), 439 Arab-Persian Gulf, 13, 19
archaeological evidence: death and burial, 420; ethno-archaeological studies, 345, 346; fashion, 378; hydraulic landscapes and irrigation systems, 35, 41; metal and standardization of value, 509; and physical geography, 21–2, 27; Sacred Marriage, 232; settlement patterns (Sumer and Akkad), 131–2; Uruk period, 69
Archaic period, 267
Archaic Texts, 72, 80, 81, 112, 397 Arch House, Eshnunna, 351
architecture: cult (Ebla), 540–3; Eanna Precinct, Uruk, 182–3; Ebla, 540–7; Egypt, 632; Mari, kingdom of, 522–3; palace (Ebla), 544–7; public, 182–3, 197, 198; and site morphology,
466–7
archives: Age of the State Archives, 538; Ebla Palace G, 455, 500, 502–4, 544, 545, 548, 552; ED III Beydar, 469; of government households, 57; Kültepe-Kanisˇ, 511; state, 35
Aristotle, 305
art: Ebla, Syria, 549–50, 551; glyptic, 323, 325–6, 504–6, 627; and handicraft production, Ebla, 549–50, 551; Sacred Marriage, 231, 232; Uruk period, 80; see also iconography
artifacts: Egypt, 630; Sacred Marriage, 229–39 Asher-Greve, J., 212, 359–77
Assurbanipal (emperor), 285 Atrahasia (mythological work), 442 avulsion process, 37–8
Baadsgaard, A., 399
Babylonian Creation Epic (mythological work),
439
Babylonian Epic of Creation (mythological work),
439
Babylonian period see Old Babylonian period (c.2004–1595 BC)
Bachhuber, C., 498–516 backswamps, 19–20
Bactrian Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC), 572
Bahrain, 587 bala tax, 43
banks, water supply, 46 banquets, 215, 216, 218, 365–6
Baranamtara (city “queen” of Lagash), 423 barley yields, 64
Barton Cylinder, 435
base 60 counting system, 305, 306, 316n base morphemes, 96
Basra, 69
BaU (goddess), 260, 261, 367 Baumgartel, E., 621
beer, 215, 216 Berger, J., 201 Bernbeck, R., 431n
bevel-rim bowls (BRB), 564 Beydar Palace, 467 bitumen, 355
Blau documents, 278 “Blau plaque,” 362
body adornments, on corpse, 422 Bomhard, A., 97
bound morphemes, 96, 98 Bowersock, G., 575 Boyer, C., 306, 310 Brisch, N., 111–24, 431n Brocade style, seals, 327
Bronze Age trading system, 590–3; Akkadian to Isin-Larsa period, 592–3; ED III period, 590–2
Building E, Eanna, 77, 79
buildings, public: accessibility of buildings/access control, 195–6, 198; architecture, 182–3, 197; builders, identity of, 189, 193–4, 195; compared to domestic housing (Khafajah), 185–6, 187; details of, 194–5; entrance design, 195; forms, single function, 188; identifying of, 193–4; Khafajah city see Khafajah city, Diyala region; monumental buildings, Uruk period, 75–6, 77, 78, 79; needs of builders, 195; recognition, 179; responsibility for building enterprise, 191–2; spatial order principles, 188; users, identity of, 184, 189, 195, 196; see also Eanna Precinct, Uruk
built environment: Egypt, 630–2; Sumerian World, 180
bulla (administrative device), 588, 589 burial see death and burial
Buringh, P., 39
Butz, K., 65n
cadastral texts, 60 Caldwell, J.R., 614
calendars, 311–16; calendrical oddities, 314–15; calendrical reforms, 315; intercalation, 314; month names, 313–14, 317n; subdivision of month, 315–16; year names, 311–12
644
–– Index ––
canals, 21, 23, 29n; as boundaries, 49; features along, 47–8; layout, 42–6, 44; as transportation networks, 48–9; Ur III period, 123; see also hydraulic landscapes; irrigation/irrigation systems
Carchemish, Euphrates, 83 cardinal numbers, 306, 308 carding boards, 404 Carter, E., 26
Carter, R., 579–99
case marking, noun phrases, 106–7 celibacy, clergy, 268
cemeteries, 167–8; Royal Cemetery of Ur see Royal Cemetery of Ur
centralizing institutions, 162–4 channels, 46, 134, 151 charioteers, 383
Charles, M.P., 34 charrawiya, 390 charred plant, 35, 38
Chicago Oriental Institute, 162, 354
cities: City II, kingdom of Mari, 523–8; City III, kingdom of Mari, 528–9; as “default” spatial configurations, 68; “heartland” of, 19, 20, 21, 22; later Sumerian, 169–73; social structure, 279–80; see also city-states; Khafajah city, Diyala region; Ur (Sumerian city-state); urbanism and urbanization; Uruk (ancient city of Sumer)
Cities List, 295
City Seal style, 327–8, 329, 330
city-states: age of (c.2600–2100 BC), 141–3; Early Dynastic, women in, 363, 364, 365–8; and sitesize hierarchy, 465; in third millennium, 567; warring, 116–20; see also cities; urbanism and urbanization
Civil, M., 39
clay, 158; writing systems, 97, 100, 291, 292 cleaning of fiber, 404
clergy, 246–71; celibacy, 268; cult ritual, performative actors, 262–4; death, burial and commemoration, 262; ecclesiastic hierarchy, Sumerian, 247–67; en, the, 248–58, 250, 252, 256, 283; female votaries, 266; generic roles, 267; lagar, 258–61; liturgical cantors and musicians, 264–6; Netherworld, priests in, 268–9; nomenclature of high priesthood, 250; selection process, 267; sources, 246–7; of Sumer, 246; titular sacerdotal, 248–62
climate change, 57, 70, 471 clothes, 396, 399; see also fashion
Codex Hammurabi, 210 co-internments, 419, 421, 426 Collins, P., 345–58
colonies, 450, 451 commemoration, 262 commercial exchange, 411–14
communication, material culture, 504–11; iconography and glyptic art, 504–6; metal and standardization of value, 508–11; Syrian Bottle,
506, 507, 508 compound nouns, 105–6
consonants, 101–2; consonant–vowel–consonant sequences, 98
content words, 104–5 Cooper, L., 478–97
copper, 354, 452; early trade, 579–83 CORONA intelligence satellite, American, 135 corpse, preparation of, 420–2
cosmogonic (heaven–earth) unions, 227 counting, Sumerian, 305–7
craft industries, Sumerian and Akkadian see textile industries, Sumerian and Akkadian
Crawford, H., 411, 412, 447–61, 517–37 ‘cultivators,’ 60–1, 62, 65n
cult ritual, performative actors, 262–4
cultural developments, Western Syria and Middle Euphrates Valley, 478–97; chronology, 480–1; cultural traditions and beliefs, 490–3; Early Bronze Age, 480, 481–8, 492; EB III-IV periods, 483–8; EB I-II settlements, 482; funerary traditions and social structures, 492; geography and subsistence, 478–80; kingship, 492–3; Late Uruk period, 481–3; religious ideologies, 491–2; Syrian temples, 491; Western Syrian/Middle Euphrates-Sumerian interconnections, 489–90, 493
culture, material, 467–9 cuneiform script, 97 cuneiform tablets, 55–6, 57
cuneiform texts, 21, 68; hydraulic landscapes and irrigation systems, 33, 35, 49, 50; see also information sources
Cunningham, G., 95–109 Curse of Akkad, 122
CVCs (consonant–vowel–consonant sequences),
98
cylinder seals, 212, 230, 256, 320, 321, 322; Akkadian period, 336; Anatolia, 506; copper trade and Oman, 581; Early Dynastic period, 331, 333; Ebla, Syria, 549; in Egypt, 626–7; and fashion, 378, 386, 387, 388, 389; third
645
–– Index ––
millennium homes, 351–2; in Uruk and Jemdet Nasr/Proto-Elamite periods, 324–9; see also seals; stamp seals
Dada, seal of, 336 Dahl, J., 63, 564 Dakanoff, I.M., 502 Damerow, P., 565 damgar (merchant), 449 David, N., 345
death and burial, 262, 355–6, 419–34; graves, 424–6; mourning and grief, 422–4; Netherworld, burial and journey of the dead into, 426–9; preparation of the corpse, 420–2; rituals, 429–30; sources, 419–20
Death of Ur-Namma, 268, 420, 428
Debate Between Hoe and Plow, 239 decimal system, 305
Deimel, A.P., 430
deities: dress of the gods, 385–6, 388, 389, 392; god-likeness of royals, 219–20; names, 98–9
Delougaz, P., 349
deltaic plain, 36, 58, 64; see also Mesopotamian Delta
de Maaijer, R., 62 democracy, primitive, 285–7
Descent of Inanna, The (mythological work), 437–8 Dilmun region, 602, 608, 625; and Magan, 612;
Sumerians and the Gulf, 586, 587, 589, 591; trade, 450–1, 454
directives (function words), 103 display inscriptions, 99–100 ditches, irrigation, 42, 46 Dittmann, R., 80 divine–devotee unions, 227
Diyala region, 40, 58, 64, 136, 151, 162; everyday life, 348, 352; Khafajah city see Khafajah city, Diyala region; residential districts, 165, 167,
174n, 175n, 185–6, 187 domain land, 65n drains, 47
drinking, communal, 215, 216
“drinking place,” rituals for the dead, 429 DUB.SANGA, 294
duh-shi-a (stone), 571
Dumuzi’s Dream (mythological work), 438 dyeing, 405
Eanatum Stela, 205–6
Eanna Precinct, Uruk, 29n, 76, 88, 180–1;
builders, 182–3, 184; elites of Uruk as builders,
184; excavations, 77, 78–9; functions, 182, 183–4; pedestal vases, 235–6; public architecture, 182–3; spatial design, 184; Square building, 181, 183; structures, 77–8; users, identity of, 184; see also Uruk (ancient city of Sumer)
Eannatum, 228, 385
Early Bronze Age (c.3200–2000 BC), 480, 492, 498, 499, 500, 508, 586; EB I-II periods, 481–3; EB III-IV periods, 483–8
Early Dynastic period, 21, 37, 80, 85, 118, 141, 164; administrative texts, 367; clergy, 251, 267; cultural developments, Western Syria and Middle Euphrates Valley, 481–2; death and burial, 419, 420, 423, 425; and Early Bronze Age, 481; Early Dynastic I-II (c.2900–2600
(BC), 116, 157, 160, 161, 330–1, 348, 352, 354,
355, 453, 464; Early Dynastic IIIa (c.2600–2500
BC), 26, 116, 117, 118, 119, 290, 331, 354, 453,
590–3; Early Dynastic IIIb (c.2500–2350 BC),
116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 331, 354, 453, 590–3; Egypt, 621–2; everyday life, 348, 352, 354, 355; fabrics, uses, 398–9; fashion in, 378, 379–86; later settlement, 161–8; late settlement, 168–9; legal texts, 278; north Mesopotamia, third millennium, 464, 467; people and state, 281; ports and harbors, 23–7; royalty, images of,
203, 205, 207, 210–11, 220, 221; Sacred Marriage, 228; scribes, 293, 297–303; seals in, 329–33; settlement trends, 150, 161–9; third millennium homes, 347–8; trade in, 452, 453–4; trading relations (ED III period), 590–2; urban centers, 166, 167–8; warring city-states, 116–20; women in, 363, 364, 365–8
Early Transcaucasian Ware, 480
Early Uruk period (c.4000–3800 BC), 70, 73 East Gharraf basin, 21
eating and drinking, 352–3 EB I-II settlements, 482
Ebla, Syria, 100, 309, 487, 538–55; Administrative Quarter, Ebla Palace G, 544, 547, 549; art and handicraft production, 549–50, 551; Central Complex, Acropolis Palace, 544–5; cult architecture, 540–3; early Syrian town, remains, 547–8; Ebla Palace G archives, 455, 500, 502–4, 544, 545, 548, 552; palace architecture, 544–7; scribes, 299–300; urban pattern, 539–40
ecclesiastic hierarchy, Sumerian, 247–67 Edens, C., 614
ED I Seal Impression Strata, Ur, 26 e-dub-lal-mah (gate), 194
646
–– Index ––
égi-zi-an-na (clergy), 262
Egypt: built environment, 630–2; cylinder seals, 626–7; expansion, 622–3; glyptic art, 627; imports, early, 629; knives, 627; lapis lazuli (semi-precious stone), 623–6; legacies, 632; and Mesopotamia, 620–36; mortuary contexts, 621–2; motifs, 627–9; Naqada IIC period, 622, 623, 627, 629; Naqada IID period, 626, 627, 629; Nile River, 38, 623; Nile Valley, 625, 632; Predynastic and Early Dynastic, 621–2, 626
Eichmann, R., 76, 89n Einstein, A., 201
Elam: Mesopotamian-Elamite relations, 469–70; in texts, 569–71
Emberling, G., 84 Emegir (language), 100–1 Emesal (language), 100–1
en, the (clergy), 248–58, 250, 252, 256, 283; ordination ritual (en-priestess), 253–5, 257
Enanatuma, statuette, 253 Englund, R., 81, 316n, 565
Enheduana (daughter of Sargon of Akkad), 202,
211, 212, 257, 379; Disk of, 232, 242n, 252, 386, 387
Eninnu, 216
Enki (deity), 440–1
Enki and Ninmah (mythological work), 441
Enki and the World Order (mythological work),
439
Enki’s Journey to Nippur (mythological work),
440–1 enku-dilmun, 586, 587
Enlil and Ninlil (mythological work), 439–40 Enlil and Sud (mythological work), 440 Enmebaragesi (ruler from SKL), 118–19, 203 “Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta” (mythological
work), 229
Enmetena (Emetena) , 119, 368, 383 en-priestess, 253–5, 257, 369
ensik, 283
Epic of Gilgamesˇ, 422
Eppihimer, M., 206
eresˇ-digˆir (queen deity), 259–61, 367 ergative-absolutive language system, 96 Eridu-Ur area, 21, 23, 58, 157, 175n; H5 building
at, 347; palaces, 164, 165; settlement patterns, 151; Uruk period, 72, 74, 75
ES34 (city), 23, 24
ES156 (city), 24, 27 Eshnunna (city), 58, 147 estuaries, 19–20
estuarine zone, 36
ETCSL, 255, 264, 269n, 316n e-temen-ni-gur-ru (ziggurat precinct), 194, 195 ethno-archaeological studies, 345, 346 Euphrates River: agriculture and land
management, 57; alluvial lowlands/fluvial system, 68, 69, 70, 71; hydraulic landscapes and irrigation systems, 33, 35, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41, 47; joint Tigris–Euphrates channel, 40; and physical geography, 14, 16, 17, 18; settlement patterns, 151; trade, 453, 456–7; Upper Euphrates, 84, 85; Uruk Expansion, 83
Euphrates Valley, 19, 485, 486; Middle (cultural developments) see cultural developments, Western Syria and Middle Euphrates Valley everyday life, Sumer, 345–58; third millennium
homes, 347–50; fifth and fourth millennium homes, 346–7; cooking, eating and drinking, 352–3; death and burial, 355–6; trade and exchange, 354–5; working from home, 353–5; see also homes
evidence: archaeological see archaeological evidence; fashion, 379; field, 50; information sources see information sources; Mesopotamian relations with Magan, 606–8; survey, 71, 72–5, 464–5; textual see textual evidence; see also archaeology, Mesopotamian
excavations, 21, 71, 72, 75–9, 84; Diyala region, 162; history/chronology, 114, 116; Konar Sandal, 571–2; Level IV, 77; Western Syria, 483
expressives (function words), 103 Eye Temple, 84
fabrics: uses, 398–403, 401; wool and linen, 396–8 Falkenstein, A., 277
fallow regime, biannual, 63 Fara (city), 117, 136, 297, 309 Fara Style, seals, 331
‘Farmers’ Instructions’ (Georgica), 34, 46 fashion, 378–92, 393; in Akkadian period, 386–7;
and cylinder seals, 378, 386, 387, 388, 389; dress of the gods, 385–6, 388, 389, 392; in Early Dynastic period, 378, 379–86; Gudea, age of, 390–2; men’s dress, 378, 382, 383; military costumes, 383, 384, 385; nudity as, 392, 393; in Old Babylonian period, 378, 386; statues, evidence of differing styles from, 379; Third Dynasty of Ur, 390–2; women’s dress, 379–82, 387–8, 389, 398; see also clothes; textile industries
felting process, 402
647
–– Index ––
female votaries, 266 Fernea, R.A., 34, 50 field evidence, 50
fields, agricultural, 58–9; management, 59–64 field survey methodologies, 133
fifth millennium BC: homes, 346–7; settlement patterns (Sumer and Akkad), 148–9
finite verbal forms, 108–9 Finlay, M.I., 448
‘First World Empire,’ state of Akkad as, 120–4 fisheries, 23
Flannery, K.V., 89n
floods: agriculture and land management, 57; flood cycle, 38–9; floodplain, Tigris and Euphrates rivers, 35–6; floodsplays, 17; history/chronology, 117, 119
fluvial system, Tigris–Euphrates, 69, 70 foraging, 448
Forest, J.-D., 347 fortification walls, 167, 172 Foster, B.R., 399, 400, 435–43
fourth millennium BC: agricultural landscape, 57; chronology, 114; homes, 346–7; textual evidence, 158; and Uruk period, 68, 69, 114,
138
Francfort, H.-P., 571, 573
Frankfort, H., 68, 116, 323, 335, 620, 621, 630,
633
free morphemes, 96 Frenez, D., 614
fullers and fulling, 406, 409 function words, 102–4 funerals, 424, 427, 492
Gabbay, U., 265
gala (lamentation priest), 265, 423 garments, 396, 399; see also fashion Gawra, 581
géme (low social status women), 367, 372, 423 Geme-Lama, eresˇ-digˆir priestess, 260–1, 262 gender, in language, 102, 104
gender neutrality, 359, 361 genres, text, 99, 113
Geographical Handbook, The, 38
geography: and environment, 69–70; physical, 13–29; settlement patterns (Sumer and Akkad), 131–2; Western Syria and Middle Euphrates Valley, 478–80
George, D., 164
Gibson, M., 136 gifts, 448
Gilgamesh (legendary king of Uruk), 203 Giparu (high priestess), 196
Girsu (city), 119, 264, 306 Glazed Steatite style, seals, 327
glyptic art, 504–6, 627; seals, 323, 325–6 god-likeness of royals, 219–20
gods, dress of, 385–6, 388, 389 Goldstone, J., 86
Gomi, T., 317n
grain crops, 33, 48, 62–3 Grain List, 295
Grai Resh, 346 graves, 167, 424–6
Greater Mesopotamia, 69, 74, 442 grief, 422–4
growth, Smithian, 86–8
Gudea of Lagash, 122, 390–2; Cylinder Inscriptions, 207; seal, from Tello, 209; statues, 210; stelae of, 208
Guest, E., 46
Gula-AN, 503
Gulf, the, 448; Bronze Age trading system, 590–3; Central and Upper, and Mesopotamia, 586–8; early contacts (Uruk to ED II period), 579–88; early copper trade, and Oman, 579–83; early trading relations, organization and logistics, 589–90; Gulf route, trade, 454, 456; hydraulic landscapes and irrigation systems, 35; maritime transport, 589–90; and Sumerians, 579–99; trade, 450–1, 457–8; see also Persian Gulf
Gutium, 122
H5 building, Eridu, 347
Habuba Kabira (Uruk town), 157–8, 161, 174n,
347, 450, 451, 629
Habuba Kabir-süd, 84
Habur region, north Mesopotamia, 324 Hacinebi, 450
Hafit period (c.3100–2700 BC), 606, 612 Hammurabi of Babylon, 49, 145; law codes, 277,
282, 287, 390
Hamoukar, 84 Hansen, D., 222n Haradum, 173
Harappan Civilization of Pakistan/Northwest India, 600, 603–6, 605, 606
Harran, 500 HAR.TU-women, 367
Hasenbeyli Pass, Amanus Mountains, 513 Hassek Huyuk, 450, 451
648
–– Index –– |
|
headdress, 378, 380, 388, 390 |
Ibbi-Suen (Ur III king), 55, 56, 124 |
“heartland” of cities, 19, 20, 21, 22 |
iconography, 68, 504–6; Akkadian period, 334; |
hegemony claims, Mesopotamia, 593–4 |
royal, 219; Uruk period, 79, 80; women, 361 |
Heimpel, W., 40 |
Idigna (watercourse), 40 |
Heinrich, E., 78, 89n |
images: of patronage, 215–16, 217, 218; of |
Heinz, M., 76, 179–98 |
protecting, 212–15; of providing, 206–8, 209; |
helmets, 385 |
Sacred Marriage, 229–39; satellite imagery, 135, |
Henrickson, E., 349 |
157, 175n; seals, 321, 324–38, 361; survey |
Hetepheres, Queen, 623 |
evidence, 135; see also art; iconography |
hidden monumentality, 197 |
import substitution, 87 |
hierogamic (divine–human) unions, 227–8 |
Inanna (goddess), 182, 227, 242n, 335 |
hieros gamos see Sacred Marriage |
Inanna and Enki (mythological work), 437–8, |
high priesthood, 249; high priestesses, 211, 212, |
439 |
248, 267; nomenclature, 250 |
Inanna and Shukaletuda (mythological work), |
Hill, H., 349 |
437 |
historical-literary tradition, 502–4, 569–71 |
Inanna Temple, Nippur, 162, 163, 291, 366 |
History Begins at Sumer (Kramer), 111 |
India (northwest), Harappan Civilization, 600, |
history/chronology, 111–24; Akkadian period see |
603–6, 605, 606 |
Akkadian period (2330–2200 BC); Early |
Indus Black Slip Jars (c.2500–2400 BC), 610 |
Dynastic period see Early Dynastic period; |
Indus Civilization, 566, 572 |
Lagash, Second Dynasty, 116, 122–4; Late Uruk |
industries, Sumerian and Akkadian; see also trade, |
period see Late Uruk period (c.3400–3100 BC); |
Sumerian World |
settlement patterns (Sumer and Akkad), 135; |
Indus Valley, 454, 456, 602, 604, 625; and |
Third Dynasty of Ur (UR III) see Third |
Mesopotamia, 600–1 |
Dynasty of Ur (Ur III) (2112–2004 BC); |
information sources: agriculture and land |
written sources, 112–14 |
management, 55, 56; Archaic Texts, 72, 80, 81; |
Hockmann, D., 238 |
clergy, 246–7; cuneiform documentation see |
Hole, F., 57, 560 |
cuneiform tablets; cuneiform texts; death and |
hollow ways, 465 |
burial, 419–20; evidentiary, 71–2; |
Holocene epoch, 19, 22, 40 |
history/chronology, 112–14; hydraulic |
homes: third millennium, 158, 347–50; fifth and |
landscapes and irrigation systems, 34–5, 47; |
fourth millennium, 346–7; compared to public |
iconography, 68, 79, 80, 504–6; mythology, |
buildings (Khafajah), 185–6, 187; cooking, |
Sumerian, 435–6; paleoclimatic data, 70; |
eating and drinking, 352–3; courtyards, 349–50; |
written, 112–14 |
internal fittings, fixtures and furniture, 350–2; |
“Instructions of Shuruppak,” 368 |
Mari, kingdom of, 528; physical remains, |
intercalation, 314 |
158–9; working from, 353–5; see also residential |
interjections (function words), 103 |
districts |
interrogative pronouns, 102–3 |
horizontal looms, 406 |
Iran, 559–78; culture, ethnicity and nation, 566–8; |
Horowitz, W., 317n |
Marhasi/Parahshum, 571–2; Proto-Elamites, |
Hritz, C., 40 |
expansion, 564–6; Shimashki, 572–3, 574, 575; |
Huber Vulliet, F., 248, 267, 269n, 270n |
and Southeast, 453–4; Sumer and Elam in |
hydraulic landscapes: avulsion process, 37–8; |
texts, 569–71; and Susa, 453, 454, 455–6, 457; |
flood cycle, 38–9; information sources, 34–5; |
trade, 453–4, 455–6, 457; Zagros Mountains, 13, |
and irrigation systems, 33–51; layout of water |
14, 15, 35, 79; see also Uruk (ancient city of |
supply, 42–6; mosaic, 45–6; physical context, |
Sumer); Uruk period (4000–3200 BC) |
35–40; river systems, nature, 36–8; salinity, 40, |
Iranian Plateau, 572 |
47; water distribution, broad patterns, 40–2; |
Iraq, 77 |
wetlands, 38; see also irrigation/irrigation |
irrigation/irrigation systems, 20; agricultural |
systems |
landscape, 57–8, 65n; ditches, 42, 46; |
hypostatic (flesh–soul) unions, 227 |
heterogeneous nature of, 50; and hydraulic |
649
–– Index ––
landscapes, 33–51; legal and administrative aspects, 49–50; modern, 47; and river levees, 36, 42–3, 44; role in agriculture, 34; see also hydraulic landscapes
isˇib-priest, 258–9, 263
Isin (city), 449
Isin-Larsa (Early Old Babylonian) period (c.2004–1763 BC), 116, 143, 210; cities, 169–70; royalty, images of, 210; third millennium homes, 348; trading system, 592–3
Iturungul (watercourse), 40
Jacobsen, T., 20, 40, 136, 285, 286 Jacobsen, Th., 65n
Jagersma, B., 424 Jazirah plains, 75
Jebel Ansariyeh Mountains, 478
Jebel Aruda, 84, 347, 450, 624 Jebel Sinjar, 75
Jemdet Nasr (settlement mound), 19, 23, 24 Jemdet Nasr period (c.3150/3100–2900 BC), 72,
88, 115, 116; Gulf, and Sumerians, 580, 581, 594; interactions with Oman Peninsular, 583–4, 585; seals in, 324–9; trade in, 452
Jiroft Valley, Halil Rud River, 571
Kalki, seal of, 322, 386 Kantor, H., 68, 621 Kardulias, N., 563 Karun River, 448
Kassite dynasty, 147, 148, 172 Kayseri, 503
Kesh Temple Hymn, 118, 248
Khafajah city, Diyala region, 185–92, 348; city map, 186; creation of the New, 189–90, 199n; function, 180; functional designation for the New, 190–1; houses, 168; Khafajah Mound A, 162; known, break with, 189–90; layers VII and VIII, 185–6, 187; New integrated into or segregated from traditionally known, 191; public buildings and domestic housing, contrasts, 185–6, 187; reasons for the New, 191–2; residential districts, 165, 185–6, 187; responsibility for building enterprise, 191–2; Sin Temple, 162–3, 185, 187, 188, 362, 364; Small Temple, 162–3, 185, 187, 188; spatial design, 185,
189; Temple Oval, 163, 164, 189, 190, 191, 192; users, identity of, 189
Kheit Qasim, 346 Khirbat al-Fakhar, 69
Khirbet Kerak Ware, 480, 563
Kimbrough, C., 405
“King of Battle” narrative, 502, 503 kings and queens, 118, 201–4, 220; Akkad
Dynasty, 120; concept of royal dynasty, 117; Early Dynastic period, 116–17, 118; female kings, 201–2, 203; historical-literary traditions, 502–4; history/chronology, 112; Mari, Amorite period, 532; royal power, sources, 283–5; Sumerian kings, 569–70; see also royalty, images of; Sumerian Kinglist (SKL); specific kings such as Rim-Sin
Kish (city), 117, 119, 121, 136, 142; kings of, 201–2; palaces at, 164, 165, 168, 467; residential districts, 165; scribes, 299
Kohlmeyer, K., 347
Konar Sandal, 571–2 Koslova, N., 62 Kouchoukos, N., 74 Kramer, S.N., 111, 435
Ku-Baba of Kish (female king), 201–2 Kuhrt, A., 202
Kullaba Precinct, Uruk, 76 Kültepe-Kanisˇ archives, 511 Kura-Araxes Culture, 563 Kura-Araxes ware (pottery), 451
labor revolution, Uruk period, 80–2 lagar (clergy), 258–61; égi-zi-an-na, 262;
eresˇ-digˆir, 259–61, 367; isˇib-priest, 258–9; lú-mah, 261
Lagash, Second Dynasty (c.2200–2112 BC), 116,
122–4
Lagash province, 119, 122–4; agriculture and land management, 58, 64; “drinking place,” 429; hydraulic landscapes and irrigation systems, 33, 49; month names, 313; and physical geography, 26, 27; residential districts, 165, 166; Sacred Marriage, 231; settlement patterns, 141–2; Temple Oval, 163; see also Gudea of Lagash
Lamberg-Karlovsky, C.C., 559–78, 614 land, lay of, 13–18, 15
land management, and agriculture (Ur III period), 55–65; agricultural landscape, 57–9; ‘cultivators,’ 60–1, 62, 65n; field management, 59–64; production levels, 64; sustenance land,
62–4, 65n
lands and estates, irrigated, 49–50 Landsat imagery, 135 Landsberger, B., 111
land survey texts, 62
650
–– Index ––
language: Akkadian, 95, 100, 103–4, 300; classification of Sumerian, 95–7; Eblaite, 489; gender in, 102, 104; genetic classification of Sumerian, 96–7; lexical expansion, 105–6; phonology, 101–2; signs, 98–9, 295–7; Sumerian, 47, 95–109, 306, 359–60, 436; typological classification of Sumerian, 96; Uruk writing system, represented by, 292–3; word classes, 102–5; writing see writing/writing systems
Lapinkivi, P., 227–8
lapis lazuli (semi-precious stone), 220, 321, 332, 366, 546, 588; and Egypt, 623–6
Late Chalcolithic centers, 83, 84, 87 Late Uruk period (c.3400–3100 BC), 69;
administrative system, 326–7; cultural developments, Western Syria and Middle Euphrates Valley, 481–2; elites/institutions, 76, 79–80; history/chronology, 114–15; labor revolution, 81; mathematics in, 309; monumental buildings, 75–6, 78, 79; and physical geography, 23, 26; royalty, images of, 203; scribes, 290–7; seals, 325, 330; spatial and political organization, 73–4; Uruk Expansion, 83; women in, 360–3
Laursen, S., 614
law: codes see law codes; gatherings, 281; legal texts, 113; people and state, 279–82; Primitive Democracy, 285–7; royal power, sources, 283–5; Rule of Law, 277–9
law codes, 49, 123, 210; Hammurabi of Babylon, 277, 282, 287, 390; Ur-Nammu/Ur-Namma (Ur III king), 282–3, 371, 457
Layard, H., 568 lead bowls, 452 Leilan, 472
levees (more banks than dams. Made by throwing up mud etc from the canal/river bed): hydraulic landscapes and irrigation systems, 36,
37, 40, 42–3, 44; weak, 16–17
Lewy, H., 316n
lexical expansion, 105–6 lexical lists, 99, 246
libations, 211, 212; palm vase, 230, 231, 232–3 Limestone Temple, Eanna, 77, 78–9, 181 liminal period, ordination ritual, 254
linen, 396, 397, 402
Lion-Hunt Stele, 379; Protoliterate period, 236,
237
literary texts, 247
liturgical cantors and musicians, 264–6
Liverani, M., 58, 59, 60, 68, 562 Lloyd, S., 464
logographic writing systems, 97
London Illustrated News, 620
longue durée, Mesopotamian culture, 345, 356, 359 looms, 405, 406
Lower Mesopotamia see Alluvial Mesopotamia Lu E (professions list), 297
Lu-Enlilla (Ur III merchant), 592
Lugalbanda and Enmerkar (Sumerian myth), 183
Lugalzagesi (king of Umma), 120, 121 Lugula, 277
lú-mah (exalted man), 261
lu’umumma (professional group who escort corpse to grave), 421, 426
Maekawa, K., 60–1, 64
Magan: evidence of Meluhan relations with, 608–9; evidence of Mesopotamian relations with, 606–8; Indus Black Slip Jars (c.2500–2400 BC), 610; relations with Marhasi,
609–13
Majidzadeh, Y., 571 Mallowan, M., 84, 464
Manishtushu, 469–70, 593; obelisk of, 278 Marchesi, G., 269n
Margueron, J.-C., 79, 517–37
Marhasi (Marhashi), 571–2, 573; Marhasi-Magan relations, 609–13
Mari, kingdom of, 287, 517–37; Amorite rule, 528–9, 532–6; architecture, 522–3; City II, 523–8; City III, 528–9; difficulty of distinguishing between Amorite city and that of Shakkanakku, 528–9; economic life, 521–2; end of Mari, 536–7; first town/foundation, 517–18, 520; glacis and outer wall, 532–3; hinterland, 520–1; houses, 528; kings, 532; monuments in centre, 519; palaces, 525–6, 531–2, 533, 534, 535, 536; refounding of, new urban characteristics, 523–5; schematic plan, 519; Shakkanakku rule, 528–32; stratigraphy, 522, 525, 528–9; temples, 527, 536; wealth and power of city, 532
marine incursion, 13, 19–20
marriage: dissolution, 372; monogamous, 368, 371, 372; sacred see Sacred Marriage
marshland: agriculture and land management, 58; hydraulic landscapes and irrigation systems, 33, 36, 37, 38; personal recollection, 639–42; and physical geography, 13, 19–20, 22, 23, 24, 27, 28
Mashkan-shapir (city), 170, 172
651
–– Index ––
“Massif Funéraire,” Susa, 89n
material culture: communication, 504–11; north Mesopotamia, third millennium, 467–9; and trade, 498–9
mathematics: Babylonian, 308–10; pre-Sargonic, 309; Sargonic, 309–10; Third Dynasty of Ur, 310; in Third Millennium, 309
Mauss, M., 412
McCaffrey, K., 227–42 McCorriston, J., 397 McMahon, A., 462–76
Mellink, M.J., 504
Meluhha, and Mesopotamia, 600–19; evidence of Meluhan relations with Magan, 608–9
men’s dress, 378, 382, 383 Méry, S., 607, 612 Mesalim, king, 117–18, 119 Meskalamdug, seals of, 119
Mesopotamia: alluvial see Alluvial Mesopotamia; archaeological survey data, 21–2, 27; and Central and Upper Gulf, 586–8; and Egypt, 620–36; hegemony claims, 593–4; and Indus Valley, 600–1; and Meluha, 600–19; Mesopotamian Delta, 21, 28; MesopotamianElamite relations, 469–70; Mesopotamian Zone, 14, 15; and mythology, 442; relations with Magan, 606–8; societies/civilization, 20, 28, 68; ‘Ubaid period (6500–3800 BC), 19, 22; zones, 35–6, 43, 69, 158; see also Greater Mesopotamia; North Mesopotamia, third millennium; southern Mesopotamia; Upper Mesopotamia
‘Mesopotamian Advantage,’ 48, 145 Mesopotamian Delta, 21, 28 Mesopotamian plain, 131, 132, 136
metal: social context for circulation of, 511–12; standardization of value, 508–11
Metallic Ware, 468 Metal List, 295 metrology, 307–8
Michalowski, P., 203, 219, 567
Middle Bronze Age (c.2000–1900 BC), 481, 498,
499, 500; Ebla, 539
Middle Uruk period (3800–3400 BC), 21, 69, 79,
80, 85, 324 midwives, 367
military costumes, 383, 384, 385, 386 mimetics, 103
Modern Growth, 86 monogamy, 368, 371, 372
months: names, 313–14, 317n; subdivision,
315–16
monumental inscriptions, 113 Moorey, R., 332, 395, 621, 624 morphemes, 96, 98 morphology, 96; verbal, 107–9 mosaic, landscape, 45–6 motifs, 207, 467–8, 627–9 mourning, 422–4
multiword verbs, 105
mythology, Sumerian, 360, 435–43; death and burial, 421; definition, 435–6; Enki (deity), 440–1; Enlil and Ninlil, 439–40; “Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta,” 229; Greater Mesopotamia, 442; Inanna and Enki,
437–8, 439; Lugalbanda and Enmerkar, 183; Ninurta (hero-god), 438–9; sources, 435–6; story form, 436; tales of origins, 441–2; and thought, 436–7; typology and summary,
437–42
naked priest, Early Dynastic, 235 Nanna of Karzida, 254, 255, 257
Nanna-Suen’s Journey to Nippur (mythological work), 440
Naqada IIC period, Egypt, 622, 623, 627, 629 Naqada IID period, Egypt, 626, 627, 629 Nara¯m Sîn (ruler of Akkad), 121–2, 123, 220, 284,
311, 455, 456, 503, 504
Nara¯m Sîn palace, Brak, 456 Neo-Assyrian capital cities, 462 Neo-Hittite capital cities, 462 Neolithic Ubaid 0 (6500–900 BC), 22
Neo-Sumerian Empire see Third Dynasty of Ur (Ur III) (2112–2004 BC)
Neo-Sumerian Renaissance, 337
Netherworld: Netherworld, burial and journey of the dead into, 426–9; priests in, 268–9
Neugebauer, O., 310
New Year’s festival, 207, 222n, 228, 240 Nile River, 38, 623
Nile Valley, 625, 632 NINA (city of Ni_in), 257 Nineveh, Tigris, 83 Ninevite 5 ware, 467 Ningal Temple, 257 Ningˆirsu, cult of, 258–9
Ninkasi A, 239–40
Ninurta (hero-god), 438–9
Ninurta and the Turtle (mythological work),
439
Ninurta’s Journey to Eridu (mythological work),
439
652
–– Index ––
Nippur (city), 72, 74, 89n, 116, 144, 162, 241, 280; buildings, 180; Inanna Temple, 162, 163; residential districts, 166; Sacred Marriage, 238, 239; settlement patterns, 136, 137, 140, 142,
151–2
Nissen, H.-J., 56, 74, 79, 114, 136, 158 nominative-accusative language system, 96 non-finite verbal forms, 108
Northern Palace, Tell Asmar, 408
north Mesopotamia, third millennium, 462–76; agro-pastoral economy, 470–1; chronology and cultural labels, 463; climate change, 471; material culture, 467–9; North of Sumer, 462–3; site morphology and architecture, 466–7; site-size hierarchy and city-states, 465; surveys and settlement, 464–5; tablets and administration, 469–70
nouns: compound, 105–6; noun phrases, 105,
106–7, 108
nudity: as fashion, 392, 393; libations, 233 numbers, 103
numeracy, third millennium BC, 310–11 Nur-Adad palace, Larsa, 171
Oates, J., 38
Ochsenschlager, E., 345–6, 354, 405, 406
Old Babylonian period (c.2004–1595 BC), 23, 25, 33, 113, 116; archaeological sites, 41; cities, 169–70; Early (Isin-Larsa) period (c.2004–1763 BC), 116, 143, 348, 592–3; fashion in, 378, 386; mathematics, 308–10; numeracy and scribal training, 310; politics and triumph of Babylon (c.1850–1500), 145–7; regional abandonment, 146; school texts, 203; scribes, 302–3, 435; settlement patterns (Sumer and Akkad), 131, 135
Oman/Oman Peninsula, 581, 582, 595, 607, 612; and copper trade, 579–83; early trading relations, organization and logistics, 589, 590; Jemdet Nasr period, interactions with, 583–4, 585; trading relations (ED III period), 591
Orontes River, 478
Oval temples, 192; Khafajah city, Diyala region,
163, 164, 189, 190, 191, 192
Oxus Civilization, 572, 573
Pakistan, Harappan Civilization, 600, 603–6, 605,
606
palaces: Beydar, 467; definition, 179–80; Ebla/Ebla Palace G archives, 455, 500, 502–4, 544, 545, 548, 552; in Kish, 164, 165, 168, 467; in Mari, 525–6, 531–2, 533, 534, 535, 536; Nara¯m
Sîn, Brak, 456; Northern, Tell Asmar, 408; Nur-Adad, Larsa, 171; physical remains, 164, 165, 168; see also temples
paleoclimatic data, 70
palm vase libation, 230, 231, 232–3 Panofsky, E., 205
Parahshum, Addadian, 571–2 Parpola, S., 97
pastoralism, 395
patronage, images of, 215–16, 217, 218 Pemberton, W., 34
Persian Gulf, 19, 35, 69, 70, 329, 561; see also Gulf, the
personal pronouns, 102 phonology, 101–2
phrases, noun, 105, 106–7, 108 physical geography, 13–29 Piedmont style, seals, 327, 468 Piesinger, C.M., 587 Pinnock, F., 538–55
Pittman, H., 319–41, 612 place notation, 316n
Plano-Convex Building, 169, 175n, 347–8 Pleistocene epoch, 13, 22, 38 Plio-Pleistocene Wadi Batin fluvial cone, 14 plucking of wool, 403–4
political unification, initial (2600–2100 BC),
141–3
Pollock, S., 73, 352, 354, 431n
Pomponio, F., 396, 398, 409 Pongratz-Leisten, B., 227 Porada, E., 122
ports and harbors, Early Dynastic period, 23–7 positional notation, 316n
Postgate, J.N., 34, 38, 89n
pottery, 450, 451, 467, 469, 563, 564, 613, 629 Potts, D., 86, 395, 572, 573, 587–8, 614
Potts, T., 455
Pournelle, J.R., 13–29, 37, 38
Powell, M.A., 34, 46, 306, 315 Poyck, A.P.G., 34, 49, 63 Predynastic Egypt, 621–2, 626 prefixes, 108–9
prehistory, 112; end of, 68–94 Prentice, R., 408, 412 pre-Sargonic period, 116, 309 priest-king, 326, 327 Primitive Democracy, 285–7
princesses, 202, 251–2; see also kings and queens; royalty, images of
pronominal prefixes, 108–9
653
–– Index ––
pronouns, 102–3 protection, images of, 212–15
proto-cuneiform texts, 111, 113, 115, 291, 292,
293
Proto-Elamite Culture, 563, 564 Proto-Elamite period, 294, 327; expansion,
564–6; seals in, 324–9 Proto-Euphratean substrate language, 111
Protoliterate period (c.3400–2900 BC), 157, 159, 161; Sacred Marriage, 227, 236
Proto-Tigridian substrate language, 111 providing, images of, 206–8, 209, 210–12 Pu Abi (Queen), 331–2, 381, 382 purification priests, 263
Qa’a, King, 623
Qalat Salih-al-Azair, 17 Qalinj Agha, 346 Qara Qusaq, 482
queens, 202; see also kings and queens; royalty, images of
Quetta Valley, Baluchistan, 603
radiocarbon, 114, 116, 581, 583 Rahmstorf, L., 507
R’as al-Hamra (RH5), 606
Rechtsurkunde, 277 reciprocity, 411–14
Red-Black Burnished Ware (RBBW), 480, 483 redistribution, textile industries, 411–14 Redman, C., 89n
Red Temple, Ebla, 540, 541, 542, 543, 550 reeds, 48, 70
reflexive pronouns, 102
Reichskalender, 314, 315, 317n research, history of, 136
residential districts, 165–8, 167, 172, 174n, 175n; Khafajah city, Diyala region, 165, 185–6, 187
Rim-Sin (king), 46 riparian regime, 29n
rituals: cult ritual, performative actors, 262–4; for the dead, 429–30
rivers, 36–8; Karun River, 448; levees see levees (see above dams); Nile River, 38, 623; Orontes River, 478; river systems, nature, 36–8; as transportation networks, 48–9; see also Euphrates River; Tigris River
Robson, E., 309, 310, 316n Rock Crystal, 322
rolling and stretching of fiber, 404 Rowton, M., 69
Royal Cemetery of Ur, 119, 211, 213, 551; burials,
419, 421, 422, 425, 426, 427; and fashion, 378, 381, 399; seals, 321, 331, 332, 366
Royal Correspondence of Ur, 113 royal inscriptions, 113
Royal Tombs, 419, 421, 425, 427, 428, 431n royalty, images of, 201–26; in Early Dynastic
period, 203, 205, 207, 210–11, 220, 221; god-likeness of royals, 219–20; images of patronage, 215–16, 217, 218; images of protecting, 212–15; images of providing, 206–8, 209, 210–12; justice, provision of, 210–11; media and message, 204–6; representation and reality, 202–4; seals, 207, 209, 216, 217; Ur III period, 203, 205, 211, 221; see also kings and queens
Rubio, G., 112 Rule of Law, 277–9 Rupley, E., 69
Sacred Marriage, 222n, 227–42, 257; defining, 227–8; images and artifacts, 229–39; investigations, 229; palm vase libation, 230, 231, 232–3; Stele of the Vultures, 234, 235, 241, 383; textual evidence, new, 239–40; traditional canon, 228–9; Uruk Vase, 235–6, 237, 238, 239; water and function of the rite, 240–1
Sagheri Sughir, 159, 161 Sahlins, M., 562 salinity, 40, 47
Sallaberger, W., 267, 270n, 317n Saqqara, niched mastaba at, 631
Sargon (ruler of Akkad), 121, 123, 143, 242n, 455,
456, 472, 544, 553, 592, 593, 601; see also
Enheduana (daughter of Sargon of Akkad) Sargonic period see Akkadian period (c.2330–2200
BC) Sasson, J., 317n
satellite imagery, 135, 157, 175n schematic style seals, 361 scholar scribe, rise of, 297–9
Schoyen Collection, Archaic Texts, 81 Schrakamp, I., 431n
scribes, 68, 113, 290–304; branching tradition, 299–300; canonization, first period (Urik III), 295; Early Dynastic and old Akkadian periods, 293, 297–303; education of, 301, 310–11; Late Uruk period, 290–7; Old Babylonian period, 302–3, 435; persons using writing, 293–4; scholar, rise of, 297–9; scribal training in third millennium BC, 310–11; signs, first list, 295–7;
654
–– Index ––
technological revolution, 290–1; Third Dynasty of Ur (Ur III), 34, 300–2; writing systems, 291–2; see also writing/writing systems
sea levels, 18, 19
Seal Impression Strata, 329, 452
seals, 119; in Akkadian period, 333–6; cylinder see cylinder seals; in Early Dynastic period, 329–33; engraving, 321; imagery and function, 321, 324–38, 361; materials used, 321; north Mesopotamia, third millennium, 468; as objects, 321–3; ophidian snakes, impressions, 241; as personal signature, 320–1; royalty, images of, 207, 209, 216, 217; stamp, 321, 323,
330, 626; style, 323, 327–8, 329, 330, 331, 361,
468; in Sumerian World, 319–41; in Ur III period, 337–8; in Uruk and Jemdet Nasr/ProtoElamite periods, 324–9; uses of, 319, 320–1
second millennium BC, 156–7, 172; (reorganization of Central Plains, 147, See below settlement pattern)
sedimentation, 13, 16, 57, 58 seeder plough, 64 self-deification, 201, 220, 222n
settlement patterns (Sumer and Akkad), 131–52; city-states, age of (c.2600–2100 BC), 141–3; countryside, abandonment (c.3000–2600 BC), 139–41; Early Dynastic period, 150, 161–9; evolution of settlement (c.3100–1500 BC), 136–47; expansion of urbanism (c.3000–2600 BC), 139–41; general trends, 148–52; initial political unification (c.2600–2100 BC), 141–3; landscape and environment, 132; late third/early second millennium settlement, 144; mid-third millennium settlement, 142; reorganization of Central Plains in later second millennium, 147, 148; research, history of, 136; survey issues and methods, 132–6; textual evidence, 135, 143, 147; third millennium BC, 156; urban origins (c.4000–3100 BC), 137–9; Ur III period, 150, 151
sexagesimal (base 60) counting system, 305, 306,
316n
Shakkanakku rule, Mari kingdom: and Amorite city, 528–9; palaces, 531–2; reconstruction of Mari, 530; transformation of religious sector,
530–1
Sharafabad, 324 Sharkalisharri, 218, 284 Sharlach, T., 305–18
Shatt al-Arab valley, 13, 14, 15, 69 Shatt al-Gharraf area, 25, 42
Shatt al-Khar canal, 23, 45 sheep herds flocks?, 397, 398 Sheikh Hassan, 324, 450, 581 Sherratt, A., 396–7 Shimashki, 572–3, 574, 575
Shulgi (Ur III king), 55, 56, 123, 218, 301, 372, 425,
593
Shurrupak, 140, 141, 142, 368 Shu-Sin (king), 315
Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, 135 signs, 98–9; first list, 295–7, 299 “Silver Mountains,” 502
Simat-Erra (canal), 46
Sin Temple, Khafajah city, 162–3, 185, 187, 188,
362, 364
Sippar (city), 58
site morphology and architecture, 466–7 site visibility, 20–2
Sjoberg, A., 316n skirt, men’s, 382, 383
SKL (Sumerian King list) see Sumerian King list (SKL)
Small Temple, Khafajah city, 162–3, 185, 187, 188 Smith, H.S., 621
Smithian Growth, 86–8
social systems (ancient), physical remains, 156–74 soil zones, 35–6
Song of Songs, 240
sources see evidence; information sources southern Mesopotamia: hydraulic landscapes and
irrigation systems, 33–51; Magan–Marhasi relations, 609–10; map, 133; Smithian Growth, 86–8; third millennium homes, 158; trade, 448, 449–50, 459; urbanization of, 57, 169; water, functions of, 33–4
spatial design: and building order, 194; cities as “default” spatial configurations, 68; development, 189; Eanna Precinct, Uruk, 184; 189; spatial order principles, 188; Uruk city, 180–5; Uruk period (4000–3200 BC), 72–5
spindle whorls, 397, 404 spinning, 404–5, 407–8, 410
SPOT imagery, survey evidence, 135 stamp seals, 321, 323, 330, 626
Standard of Ur, 212, 236, 237, 383, 384, 385, 392 Standard Professions List, 295, 296, 297, 299 Starzmann, M., 431n
State Archives, 35, 538, 543, 544
statues, evidence of fashion styles from, 379 Stein, G., 85, 89n, 563
Steinert, U., 431n
655
–– Index ––
Steingebaude (White Temple, Anu), 76 |
T29 site, Naqada (Egypt), 626 |
Steinkeller, P., 27, 29n, 62, 63, 270n, 402, 571, 572, |
Tarut, 587–8 |
573 |
Taurus Mountains, Turkey, 79 |
Stele of the Vultures, 234, 235, 241, 383, 385, 386; |
Taylor, J., 290–304 |
graves, 424–5 |
technological revolution, 290–1 |
Stevenson, A., 620–36 |
Tell Abraq, 454 |
Stone, E., 29n, 156–74 |
Tell Abu Salabikh, 117 |
Stone Cone Mosaic Temple, Eanna, 77, 181 |
Tell Abu Sheeja, 162 |
stratigraphy, 112, 116; Mari, 522, 525, 528–9 |
Tell Agrab, 348 |
Strommenger, E., 222n |
Tell Ahmar, 484 |
Subartu (term for north), 463, 472–3; see also |
Tell al-Hiba (ancient Lagash), island, 26 |
north Mesopotamia, third millennium |
Tell Asmar, 323, 380, 408; everyday life, 348, 349, |
subject–object–verb languages, 96 |
351; physical remains, 162, 165, 167, 172 |
subsistence, Western Syria and Middle Euphrates |
Tell Banat, 484 |
Valley, 478–80 |
Tell Brak, 69, 84, 324, 463, 466, 470 |
Sumer: clergy of, 246; everyday life see everyday |
Tell Halawa, 172 |
life, Sumer; hydraulic landscapes and irrigation |
Tell Harmal, 173 |
systems, 33–51; land management, and |
Tell Hassuna, 463 |
agriculture (Ur III period), 55–65; later cities, |
Tell Judaideh, 483 |
169–73; north of, third millennium, 462–3; |
Tell Khuera, 550 |
relationship with Subartu, 472–3; settlement |
Tell Leilan, 463 |
patterns see settlement patterns (Sumer and |
Tell Mardikh, 538, 544 |
Akkad), 131–52; in texts, 569–71; Uruk see Uruk |
Tello, 73, 119 |
(ancient city of Sumer) |
Tell Qannas, 84 |
Sumerian Empire see Third Dynasty of Ur (Ur |
tells, 466 |
III) (2112–2004 BC) |
Tell Sabi Abyad, Syria, 319, 320 |
Sumerian King list (SKL), 113, 116–20, 141, 285–6, |
Tell Suleimeh, 385, 386 |
301 |
Tell ‘Ubaid, 162 |
Sumerian Mythology (Kramer), 435 |
Tell ‘Uqair, 72, 157, 159, 174–5n |
“Sumerian Problem/Question,” 111 |
Telul eth-Thalathat V, 466 |
“Sumerian Renaissance,” 197, 300–2; Neo-Sumerian |
Temple Hymns, 301 |
Renaissance, 337; Ur as centre of, 192–6 |
temples: Abu Temple, Tell Asmar, 162; definition, |
Sumerians: as “black-headed people,” 111; and |
179–80; Eye Temple, 84; Inanna Temple, |
Gulf, 579–99; origins, 111–12 |
Nippur, 162, 163, 291, 366; Limestone Temple, |
Sumerian World (c.3000–2000 BC), 179; built |
Eanna, 77, 78–9, 181; Mari, kingdom of, 527, |
environment, 180; end of, 147, 192–3; public |
536; Nanna, 255; Ningal, 257; origins, 157; |
architecture, 197, 198; seals in, 319–41; trade in, |
Oval, 163, 164, 189, 190, 191, 192; Red Temple, |
447–61; urban representatives, 180 |
Ebla, 540, 541, 542, 543, 550; Sin Temple and |
survey evidence, 71, 72–5; issues and methods, |
Small Temple, Khafajah city, 162–3, 185, 187, |
132–6; northern Mesopotamia, 464–5 |
188, 362, 364; Stone Cone Mosaic Temple, |
Susa: and Iran, 453, 454, 455–6, 457; “Massif |
Eanna, 77, 181; Syrian, 491; Tell ‘Uqair, 159; |
Funéraire,” 89n; and the south, 450 |
Temple D, Eanna, 79, 89n; Temple of the |
Susa Acropole, 324 |
Rock, Ebla, 541–2, 543; White Temple complex, |
Susiana plain, Khuzestan, 82, 89n |
Anu Precinct, 76, 78, 89n; see also palaces |
sustenance land, 62–4, 65n |
Tepe Gawra, 455–6, 630 |
Suter, C.E., 201–26 |
Tepe Sialk, 565 |
SVPS (sexagesimal place value system), 316n |
Tepe Yahya, 565 |
Syria: lapis lazuli in, 624; map, 479; Tabqa Dam |
Teppo, S., 227 |
area, 75; Upper Khabur basin, 84, 88; Western |
textile industries, Sumerian and Akkadian, 222n, |
see Western Syria, cultural developments |
395–6, 395–417; basic resources, 396–8; |
Syrian Bottle, 507, 508 |
clothing, 396, 399; colors, 400, 402; |
656
–– Index ––
commercial exchange, 411–14; gifts, 412–13; household production, 410–11; organization of production, 407–10; reciprocity, 411–14; redistribution, 411–14; tools of the trade see textile industry processes; uses of fabrics, 398–403, 401; wool and linen, 396–8; workshops, 410; see also fashion
textile industry processes: cleaning, rolling and stretching, 404; dyeing, 405; fulling, 406, 409; horizontal and vertical looms, 406; plucking, 403–4; spinning, 404–5, 407–8, 410; warping the loom, 406; weaving, 405, 406, 407, 408,
409, 410
textual evidence: administrative texts see administrative texts; Archaic Texts, 72, 80, 81, 112, 397; cadastral texts, 60; cuneiform texts see cuneiform texts; Elam, 569–71; fourth millennium BC, 158; genres, 99, 113; historicalliterary traditiosn, 502–4, 569–71; land survey texts, 62; legal texts, 113, 278; literary texts, 247; Old Babylonian period, 203; proto-cuneiform, 111, 113, 115, 291, 292, 293; Proto-Elamite period, 564; Sacred Marriage, 239–40; settlement patterns (Sumer and Akkad), 135, 143, 147; trade, 448–9; Ur (Sumerian city-state), public buildings, 193–4; western Syria and Sumer connections, 489; see also evidence; information sources
theogomic (divine-divine) unions, 228
Third Dynasty of Ur (Ur III) (c.2112–2004 BC), 33, 55, 116; administration, 300–2; administrative texts, 215–16; aftermath, 143–5; agriculture and land management, 55–65; archaeological sites, 41; cities, 169–70; clergy, 251; craft industries, Sumerian and Akkadian, 400, 401; ‘cultivators,’ 60–1, 62, 65n; death and burial, 425; fashion, 390–2; grain shipments, 48; homes, 350; hydraulic landscapes and irrigation systems, 43; Magan trade, 592; mathematics, 310; Neo-Sumerian royalty, 230, 231; people and state, 281; and physical geography, 16, 27, 28; royalty, images of, 203, 205, 211, 221; Sacred Marriage, 232; scribes, 34, 300–2; seals in, 337–8; and Second Dynasty of Lagash, 122–4; settlement patterns (Sumer and Akkad), 150, 151; trade, 449; trade in, 456–7; and Ur city, 192–3; women in, 371–4
third millennium BC, 33, 68, 156, 173, 306, 309, 321, 397; chronological chart, 501; chronology, 501; city-states, 567; comparative plans, 171; cuneiform tablets, 56, 57; homes, 158, 347–50;
interaction spheres, 574; north Mesopotamia in, 462–76; numeracy and scribal training, 310–11; trade in, 452
Thornton, C.P., 600–19
Tigris River: agriculture and land management, 57; alluvial lowlands/fluvial system, 68, 69, 70, 71; hydraulic landscapes and irrigation systems, 33, 35, 36, 39, 40, 41, 47; joint Tigris–Euphrates channel, 40; and physical geography, 14, 16; settlement patterns, 151; Uruk Expansion, 83
time, 311 Tinney, S., 239
titular sacerdotal clergy, 248–62 topographic modeling, 135 Tosi, M., 614
trade, Sumerian World, 447–61; Agade period, 455; colonies, 450; Euphrates route, 453, 456–7; everyday life, 354–5; Gulf route, 454, 456, 457–8; imported goods, 458–9; Indus valley, 454, 456; Southeast and Iran, 453–4; Southern Gulf route, 456; standard, 448; Susa and Iran, 455–6, 457; in Third Dynasty of Ur, 456–7; see also Bronze Age trading system; industries, Sumerian and Akkadian
transliteration, 98
transportation networks, rivers and canals as,
48–9
Tremblay, X., 571, 573
Tullul al-Hammar/Banrat al-Hassan canal, 23 Turaba–Abu Dakar, 24
Turkey, Taurus Mountains, 79 typology, 112; mythology, 437–42
Ubaid Culture, 560, 561
Ubaid period (c.6500–3800 BC), 89n; bi-modal settlement structure, 73; hydraulic landscapes and irrigation systems, 37, 38, 39, 43, 50; and physical geography, 19, 22; settlement patterns (Sumer and Akkad), 136; and Uruk period, 72,
73
Ubil-Eshtar, scribe of, 322
UD.GAL.NUN (writing system), 100, 118, 299 uhmusˇ (professional group who escort corpse to ˘ grave), 426
Umma city, 27, 73, 142; hydraulic landscapes and irrigation systems, 40, 41, 45, 46, 49; land management, and agriculture (Ur III period), 60, 65n; settlement patterns, 140, 145, 151
Umm al-’Ajaj, 160 Umm al-Aqarib, 162, 164 Umm al-Marra, 485
657
–– Index ––
Umm an-Nar Culture (c.2700–2000 BC), 608, 612 Umm an-Nar site, Maysar, 602
Unger, E., 233 Upper Euphrates, 85
Upper Khabur basin, Syria, 84, 88 Upper Mesopotamia, 82, 83, 88 Upper Sea, 539
Ur (Sumerian city-state), 116; agriculture and land management, 58; as centre of ‘Sumerian Renaissance,’ 192–6; and end of Sumerian World, 192–3; Royal Cemetery see Royal Cemetery of Ur; Royal Correspondence, 113; settlement patterns, 143–4; texts and identity of builders, 193–4; Uruk period, 72; ziggurat at, 193; see also Eridu-Ur area
Ur, J., 131–52
urbanism and urbanization, 68; beginnings, 157–61; birth of city-state, 114; centers, 162–8; centralizing institutions, 162–4; Early Dynastic period, 116–20; Ebla, 539–40; expansion (3000–2600 BC), 139–41; fourth millennium BC, 346; later Sumerian cities, 169–73; north Mesopotamia, third millennium, 465; organization of Sumerian town, 156–74; and physical geography, 22–7; residential districts, 165–8; smaller sites, 168; southern Mesopotamia, 57; Sumerian World, urban representatives, 180; urban origins (c.4000–3100 BC), 137–9; Uruk period (4000–3200 BC), 75–9; women and agency, 359
urban trends, 22–7 Ur-DUN (isˇib-priest), 259
Ur III Empire see Third Dynasty of Ur (Ur III) (2112–2004 BC)
Ur-Nammu/Ur-Namma (Ur III king), 38, 42, 55, 122, 123, 194, 208, 311; death of, 428; law codes,
282–3, 371, 457
Ur-Nanshe: daughter (Abda), 212, 365; door plaque, 209, 216, 382; stelae of, 207–8, 216
Uruinimgina (last ruler of first dynasty of Lagash), 368, 421
Uruk (ancient city of Sumer), 114, 561; built monumentality and space design, 180, 180–5; city map, 182; documents from, 99; Eanna Area see Eanna Area, Uruk; elites as builders of Eanna Precinct, 184; Hunt Stela from, 212; levels VI to IV, 181; and physical geography, 17, 19, 21, 23, 26; possible change of political order in, 183–4; settlement patterns, 137, 142, 151; spatial distribution of sites, 139; temples in, 157; Vase see Vase, Uruk
Urukagina, 368; reform text from, 119–20 Uruk colonies, abandonment, 347
Uruk Expansion, 82–6, 561–3, 594–5; apparent collapse of, 632
Uruk Explosion, 86, 140
Uruk period (c.4000–3200 BC), 561–3; colonial intrusion, 82–6; and end of prehistory, 68–94; excavations, 75–9; fourth millennium BC, spanning most of, 68, 69, 114, 138; hydraulic landscapes and irrigation systems, 39, 43; labor revolution, 80–2; Late see Late Uruk period (c.3400–3100 BC); multi-modal settlement structure, 73; and physical geography, 19, 23, 26; seals in, 324–9; Smithian Growth, 86–8; spatial and political organization, 72–5; trade, 450; and Ubaid period, 72, 73; urbanism,
75–9
Uruk Survey site 245, 158 Ushumgal stele, 278, 363, 364
Vallat, F., 571 Vallet, R., 158, 347 van Buren, E., 231
Van De Mieroop, M., 277–89, 346 van Driel, G., 65n
van Soldt, W., 281
Vase, Uruk, 206–7, 283–4, 360; Sacred Marriage,
235–6, 237, 238, 239
Veldhuis, N., 297
verbs: finite forms, 108–9; multiword, 105; non-finite forms, 108; Sumerian, 104; verbal morphology, 107–9; verb-final languages, 96
Verhoeven, K., 29n vertical looms, 406 Vessels List, 295, 296 Vidale, M., 571 Vogel, H., 419–34 vowels, 101
Wadi al-Khar, near Hit, 14, 15 Wadi Shab-GASI, 581
Wadi Suq Culture (c.2000–1500 BC), 608 Waetzoldt, H., 300
Wallerstein, I., 447, 562, 612, 613 walls, 167, 172
Ward, W., 621
Warka (Uruk city), 23, 74, 75, 80, 89n; excavations at, 71, 72, 76; see also Uruk (ancient city of Sumer)
warping process, 406
658
–– Index ––
water: alluvial waters see alluvial waters/plains; |
Dynastic city-states, 363, 364, 365–8; fashion, |
distribution, broad patterns, 40–2; drainage, |
379–82, 387–8, 389, 398; gender categories and |
southern Iraq, 13; and function of the rite, in |
status, differentiation, 361; iconography, 361; in |
Sacred Marriage, 240–1; as provider of |
Late Uruk period, 360–3; low social status, 367, |
abundance, 33; roles/functions, 33–4, 50; supply |
372, 423; “pigtailed,” 361; royal, 202, 221; in |
of see water supply; see also canals; Euphrates |
Third Dynasty of Ur, 371–4 |
river; Tigris River |
wool, 396, 397–8, 402 |
water buffalo, 175n |
Woolley, L., 350, 351–2, 385, 419, 428 |
watercourses, 40, 142–3 |
word classes, 102–5 |
water supply: and agriculture, 46–8; layout, |
word lists, 113 |
42–6, 44 |
word order, 96 |
waterways, 20 |
word structure see morphology |
weavers, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 410 |
World Systems theory (WST), Wallerstein, 447, |
Wengrow, D., 632 |
562, 612, 613 |
Westenholz, A., 121, 122, 370 |
Wright, H., 38, 43, 69, 74, 89n, 136 |
Westenholz, J.G., 246–71 |
Wright, H.T., 23 |
Western Syria, cultural developments see cultural |
Wright, R.P., 395–417 |
developments, Western Syria and Middle |
writing/writing systems, 97–9; conception, 292–3; |
Euphrates Valley |
first scribes, 291–2; language represented by, |
wetlands, 38 |
292–3; origins of writing, 99, 111, 112, 360–1; |
wet-nurses, 367 |
persons using writing, 293–4; training in |
White Temple complex, Anu Precinct, 76, 78, 89n |
writing, 113; written records, 99–101; see also |
Whiting, R., 317n |
scribes |
whorls, 397, 404, 405 |
|
Widell, M., 55–65 |
year names, 311–12, 316–17n |
Wilcke, C., 368 |
Yoffee, N., 89n |
Wilkinson, T.J., 33–51, 74 |
|
winds, 20 |
Zabalam, 140 |
Winter, I., 212, 219, 241, 346, 427 |
Zagros Mountains, Iran, 13, 14, 15, 35, 79 |
Wittfogel, K., 35, 50 |
Ziggurats, 193, 194, 195 |
women: and agency, 359–77; under Akkadian |
Zimmermann, T., 506 |
rule, 369–71; in cult/ritual, 361, 362; in Early |
zirru-priestess, 251–2, 269n |
659
