b)Drill a hole in the piece.

c)Put the drill over the mark.

d)Mark the hole.

e)Saw this piece of wood into two parts.

f)There is no saw in the toolbox.

Writing

Section A. Determine the solution, findings and/or recommendations

Theory

Business research and analysis provide entrepreneurs and mangers with the necessary information and market context to support effective business decision making to achieve these objectives. When an entrepreneur clearly understands his target market he is able to mould the business so it directly engages with this sector of the market and subsequently achieves considerable commercial success. From a business planning perspective, the business analysis, solutions, findings and recommendations provides a critique of information that will support communication concerning the viability of the proposed business in order to facilitate capital rising.

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Based on the analysis, authors will be ready to offer a solution (or solutions) to the business problem they have been studying. There needs to exist a relationship between the business problem, analysis and subsequent outcomes that arises from the evidence. This chain of reasoning will support the development of appropriate business strategies which involves the matching of the strength of the business with available opportunities. To do this effectively, the entrepreneur needs to collect, analyze and understand information about business environment.

СFrom this information and often through the fuzzy process of rationalizing the Business concept (or business problem) against the market research findings, business strategies are born. This process is enhanced if the entrepreneur (author) already has a clear understanding of the mission, goals and objectives of the start– up business. The development of the business strategies must be based on commercial fact rather than entrepreneurial fiction.

STEAM AUTOMOBILES

Ferdinand Verbiest, a member of a Jesuit mission in China, built the first steam–powered vehicle around 1672, designed as a toy for the Chinese Emperor, it being of small scale and unable to carry a driver or passenger but, quite possibly, the first working steam–powered vehicle ('auto–mobile').

Steam–powered self–propelled vehicles are thought to have been devised in the late 18th century. Nicolas–Joseph Cugnot demonstrated his fardier à vapeur, an experimental steam–driven artillery tractor, in 1770 and 1771. Cugnot's design proved to be impractical and his invention was not developed in his native France, the centre of innovation passing to Great Britain. By 1784, William Murdoch had built a working model of a steam carriage in Redruth, and in 1801 Richard

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Trevithick was running a full–sized vehicle on the road in Camborne. Such vehicles were in vogue for a time, and over the next decades such innovations as hand brakes, multi–speed transmissions, and better steering developed.

Си б А Д A replica of Richard Trevithick's 1801 road locomotiveИ'Puffing Devil'

Some were commercially successful in providing mass transit, until a backlash against these large speedy vehicles resulted in passing a law, the Locomotive Act, in 1865 requiring self–propelled vehicles on public roads in the United Kingdom be preceded by a man on foot waving a red flag and blowing a horn. This effectively killed road auto development in the UK for most of the rest of the 19th century, as inventors and engineers shifted their efforts to improvements in railway locomotives. The law was not repealed until 1896, although the need for the red flag was removed in 1878.

In Russia in the 1780s, Ivan Kulibin started working on a human–pedalled carriage with a steam engine. He finished working on it in 1791. Some of its features included a flywheel, brake, gearbox, and bearing, which are also the

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СиCugnot's steam wagon, the second (1771) version

features ofбa modern automobile. His design had three roadwheels. Unfortunately, as with many of his inventions, the government failed to see the potential market and it was not developed further.

The first automobile patent in the United States was granted to Oliver Evans in 1789. In 1805, EvansАdemonstrated his first successful self–propelled vehicle, which not only was the first automobile in the USA, but was also the first amphibious vehicle, as his steam–powered vehicle was able to travel on roadwheels on land, and via a paddle wheel in the water.

Among other efforts, in 1815, a professor at Prague Polytechnic, Josef Bozek, built an oil–fired steam carДand Walter Hancock, builder and operator of London steam buses, in 1838 built a four–seat steam.

ELECTRIC AUTOMOBILES

In 1838, Scotsman Robert Davidson built an electric locomotive that attained a speed of 4 miles per hour (6 km/h). In England, a patent was granted in 1840 for the use of rail tracks as conductorsИof electric current, and similar American patents were issued to Lilley and Colten in 1847. Between 1832 and 1839 (the exact year is uncertain), Robert Anderson of Scotland invented the first crude electric carriage, powered by non–rechargeable primary cells.

Early attempts at making and using internal combustion engines were hampered by the lack of suitable fuels, particularly liquids, and the earliest engines used gas mixtures. Early experimenters using gasses included, in 1806, Swiss engineer François Isaac de Rivaz who built an internal combustion engine powered by a hydrogen and oxygen mixture, and in 1826, Englishman Samuel Brown who

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Си

б1885–builtАBenz Patent Motorwagen, the first car

to go into production with an internal combustion engine

tested his hydrogen–fuelled internal combustion engine by using it to propel a vehicle up Shooter's Hill in southДeast London. Belgian–born Etienne Lenoir's Hippomobile with a hydrogen gas–fuelled one–cylinder internal combustion engine made a test drive from Paris to Joinville–le–Pont in 1860, covering some nine kilometres in about three hours. A later version was propelled by coal gas. A Delamare–Deboutteville vehicle was patented and trialled in 1884.

About 1870, in Vienna, Austria (then Иthe Austro–Hungarian Empire), inventor Siegfried Marcus put a liquid–fueled internal combustion engine on a simple handcart which made him the first man to propel a vehicle by means of gasoline. Today, this car is known as « the first Marcus car». In 1883, Marcus secured a German patent for a low–voltage ignition system of the magneto type; this was his only automotive patent. This design was used for all further engines, and the four–seat « second Marcus car» of 1888/89. This ignition, in conjunction with the « rotating–brush carburetor», made the second car's design very innovative.

It is generally acknowledged that the first really practical automobiles with petrol/gasoline–powered internal combustion engines were completed almost simultaneously by several German inventors working independently: Karl Benz built his first automobile in 1885 in Mannheim. Benz was granted a patent for his automobile on 29 January 1886, and began the first production of automobiles in 1888, after Bertha Benz, his wife, had proved with the first long–distance trip in

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August 1888 – from Mannheim to Pforzheim and back – that the horseless coach was absolutely suitable for daily use. Since 2008 a Bertha Benz Memorial Route commemorates this event.

Soon after, Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Stuttgart in 1889 designed a vehicle from scratch to be an automobile, rather than a horse–drawn carriage fitted with an engine. They also are usually credited as inventors of the first motorcycle in 1886, but Italy's Enrico Bernardi, of the University of Padua, in

С1882, patented a 0.024 horsepower (17.9 W) 122 cubic centimetres (7.4 cu in) one–cylinder petrol motor, fitting it into his son's tricycle, making it at least a candidate for the first automobile and first motorcycle, Bernardi enlarged the tricycle in 1892 to carry two adults.

иOne of the first four–wheeled petrol–driven automobiles in Britain was built in Birmingham in 1895 by Frederick William Lanchester, who also patented the disc brake and the first electric starter, was installed on an Arnold, in a copy of the Benz Velo, built between 1895 and 1898.

In allбthe turmoil, many early pioneers are nearly forgotten. In 1891, John William Lambert built a three–wheeler in Ohio City, Ohio, which was destroyed in a fire the same year, while Henry Nadig constructed a four–wheeler in Allentown, Pennsylvania. It is likely they were not the only ones.

АVETERAN ERA

The first production of automobiles was by Karl Benz in 1888 in Germany and, under licence from Benz, in France by Emile Roger. There were numerous others, including tricycle builders Rudolf Egg, Edward Butler, and Léon Bollée. Bollée, using a 650 cubic centimetres (40 cu in) engine of his own design, enabled his driver, Jamin, to average 45 kilometresДper hour (28.0 mph) in the 1897 Paris– Tourville rally. By 1900, mass production of automobiles had begun in France and the United States. The first company formed exclusively to build automobiles was Panhard et Levassor in France, which also introduced the first four–cylinder engine. Formed in 1889, Panhard was quickly followed by Peugeot two years later. By the start of the 20th century, the automobile industryИwas beginning to take off in western Europe, especially in France where, in 1903, 30,204 cars were produced, representing 48.8% of world automobile production that year.

In the United States, brothers Charles and Frank Duryea founded the Duryea Motor Wagon Company in 1893, becoming the first American automobile manufacturing company. However, it was Ransom E. Olds, and his Olds Motor Vehicle Company (later known as Oldsmobile) who would dominate this era of automobile production. Its large scale production line was running in 1902. Within a year, Cadillac (formed from the Henry Ford Company), Winton, and Ford were producing cars in the thousands.

Within a few years, a dizzying assortment of technologies were being produced by hundreds of producers all over the western world. Steam, electricity and petrol/gasoline–powered automobiles competed for decades, with petrol/gasoline internal combustion engines achieving dominance in the 1910s. Dual– and even quad–engine cars were designed, and engine displacement ranged

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to more than a dozen litres. Many modern advances, including gas/electric hybrids, multi–valve engines, overhead camshafts, and four–wheel drive, were attempted, and discarded at this time.

In My Merry Oldsmobile songbook featuring an Oldsmobile Curved Dash automobile (produced 1901–1907) and period driving clothing

By 1900, it was possible to talk about a national automotive industry in many countries, including Belgium (home to Vincke, which copied Benz; СGermain, a pseudo–Panhard; and Linon and Nagant, both based on the Gobron– Brillié, Switzerland (led by Fritz Henriod, Rudolf Egg, Saurer, Johann Weber, and Lorenz Popp), Vagnfabrik AB in Sweden, Hammel (by A. F. Hammel and H. U.

Johansen at Copenhagen, in Denmark, beginning around 1886), Irgens (starting in иBergen, Norway, in 1883, but without success), Italy (where FIAT started in 1899), and as far afield as Australia (where Pioneer set up shop in 1898 (with an already archaic paraffin–fuelled centre–pivot–steered wagon). Meanwhile, the export trade had begun to be global, with Koch exporting cars and trucks from Paris to Tunisia, Egypt, Iran,бand the Dutch East Indies.

Innovation was rapid and rampant, with no clear standards for basic vehicle architectures, body styles, construction materials, or controls. Many veteran cars use a tiller, rather than a wheel for steering, for example, and most operated at a single speed. Chain drive was dominant over the modern drive shaft, and closed bodies were extremelyАrare.

On 5 November 1895, George B. Selden was granted a United States patent for a two–stroke automobile engine (U.S. Patent 549,160). This patent did more to hinder than encourage development of autos in the USA. Selden licensed his patent to most major American auto makers, collecting a fee on every car they produced. The Studebaker brothers, having Дbecome the world's leading manufacturers of horse–drawn vehicles, made a transition to electric automobiles in 1902, and gasoline engines in 1904, but they continued to build horse–drawn vehicles until 1919. In 1908, the first South American automobile was built in Peru, the Grieve.

Throughout the veteran car era, however, automobiles were seen as more of a novelty than a genuinely useful device. BreakdownsИwere frequent, fuel was difficult to obtain, roads suitable for travelling were scarce, and rapid innovation meant that a year–old car was nearly worthless. Major breakthroughs in proving the usefulness of the automobile came with the historic long–distance drive of Bertha Benz in 1888, when she traveled more than 80 kilometres (50 mi) from Mannheim to Pforzheim, to make people aware of the potential of the vehicles her husband, Karl Benz, manufactured, and after Horatio Nelson Jackson's successful trans–continental drive across the United States in 1903.

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BRASS OR EDWARDIAN ERA

СT–model Ford car parked outside Geelong Library at its launch in Australia in 1915

и in 1914. 1905бwas a signal year the development of the automobile, marking the

Named for the widespread use of brass in the United States, the Brass, or

Edwardian era lasted from roughly 1905 through to the beginning of World War I

point when the majority of sales shifted from the hobbyist and enthusiast to the average user.

Within the 15 years that make up the Brass or Edwardian era, the various experimental designsАand alternate power systems would be marginalised. Although the modern touring car had been invented earlier, it was not until Panhard et Levassor's Système Panhard was widely licensed and adopted that recognisable and standardised automobiles were created. This system specified

front–engined, rear–wheel drive internal combustion engined cars with a sliding gear transmission. Traditional coach–styleДvehicles were rapidly abandoned, and

buckboard runabouts lost favour with the introduction of tonneaus, and other less– expensive touring bodies.

Throughout this era, development of automotive technology was rapid, due in part to a huge number (hundreds) of small manufacturers all competing to gain the world's attention. Key developments includedИelectric ignition system (by Robert Bosch, 1903), independent suspension, and four–wheel brakes (by the Arrol–Johnston Company of Scotland in 1909). Leaf springs were widely used for suspension, though many other systems were still in use, with angle steel taking over from armored wood as the frame material of choice. Transmissions and throttle controls were widely adopted, allowing a variety of cruising speeds, though vehicles generally still had discrete speed settings, rather than the infinitely variable system familiar in cars of later eras.

Between 1907 and 1912 in the United States, the high–wheel motor buggy (resembling the horse buggy of before 1900) was in its heyday, with over seventy– five makers including Holsman (Chicago), IHC (Chicago), and Sears (which sold via catalog); the high–wheeler would be killed by the Model T.

Some examples of cars of the period included the following:

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1908–1927 Ford Model T — the most widely produced and available car of the era. It used a planetary transmission, and had a pedal–based control system.

1910 Mercer Raceabout — regarded as one of the first sports cars, the Raceabout expressed the exuberance of the driving public, as did the similarly–conceived American Underslung and Hispano–Suiza Alphonso.

1910–1920 Bugatti Type 13 — a notable racing and touring model with advanced engineering and design. Similar models were the Types 15, 17, 22, and 23.

Theбvintage era lasted from the end of World War I (1919), through the Wall Street Crash at the end of 1929. During this period, the front–engined car came to dominate, with closed bodies and standardised controls becoming the norm. In

1919, 90% of cars sold were open; by 1929, 90% were closed. Development of the internal combustion engine continued at a rapid pace, with multi–valve and

1922–1939 Austin 7 — the Austin Seven was one of the most widely copied

1924–1929 Bugatti Type 35 — the Type 35 was one of the most successful racing cars of all time, with over 1,000 victories in five years.

1922–1931 Lancia Lambda — very advanced car for the time, first car to feature a load–bearing monocoque–type body and independent suspension in front. 1925–1928 Hanomag 2 / 10 PS — early example of envelope styling, without separate fenders (wings) and running boards.

1927–1931 Ford Model A — after keeping the brass era Model T in production for too long, Ford broke from the past by restarting its model series with the 1927 Model A. More than 4 million were produced, making it the best–selling model of the era.

1930 Cadillac V–16 — developed at the height of the vintage era, the V16– powered Cadillac would join Bugatti's Royale as the most legendary ultra–luxury cars of the era.

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СThe pre–war part of the classic era began with the Great Depression in 1930, and ended with the recovery after World War II, commonly placed at 1948. It was иin this period that integrated fenders and fully–closed bodies began to dominate sales, with the new saloon/sedan body style even incorporating a trunk or boot at the rear for storage. The old open–top runabouts, phaetons and touring cars were phased out by the end of the classic era as wings, running boards, and headlights were gradually integrated with the body of the car.

Citroën Traction Avant

by André бCitroën with the launch of the Traction Avant in 1934, though it had appeared several years earlier in road cars made by Alvis and Cord, and in racing cars by Miller (and may have appeared as early as 1897). After 1930, the number of auto manufacturers declined sharply as the industry consolidated and matured.

By the 1930s, most of the mechanical technology used in today's automobiles had been invented, although some things were later « re–invented», and credited to someone else. For example, front–wheel drive was re–introduced

Exemplary pre–war automobiles:

1932–1939 Alvis Speed 20 and Speed 25 — the first cars with all–synchromesh

1934–1956 Citroën Traction Avant — the first mass–produced front–wheel drive car, built with monocoque techniques.

1936–1955 MG T series — sports cars with youth appeal at an affordable price. 1938–2003 Volkswagen Beetle — a design for efficiency and low price, which progressed over 60 years with minimal basic change.

1936–1939 Rolls–Royce Phantom III — V12 engined pinnacle of pre–war engineering, with technological advances not seen in most other manufacturers until the 1960s. Superior performance and quality.

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POST–WAR ERA

СAutomobile design finally emerged from the shadow of World War II in 1949, the year that in the United States saw the introduction of high–compression иV8 engines and modern bodies from General Motors' Oldsmobile and Cadillac brands. The unibody/strut–suspended 1951 Ford Consul joined the 1948 Morris Minor and 1949 Rover P4 in waking up the automobile market in the United Kingdom. In Italy, Enzo Ferrari was beginning his 250 series, just as Lancia

1953 Morris Minor Series II

car class putбJapan on wheels for the first time. The legendary Volkswagen Beetle survived Hitler's GermanyАto shake up the small–car market in the Americas. Ultra luxury, exemplified in America by the Cadillac Eldorado Brougham, reappeared

introduced the revolutionary V6–powered Aurelia.

Throughout the 1950s, engine power and vehicle speeds rose, designs

became more integrated and artful, and cars spread across the world. Alec

Issigonis' Mini and Fiat's 500 diminutive cars swept Europe, while the similar kei

after a long absence, and grand tourers (GT), like the Ferrari Americas, swept across Europe.

Japan appeared as a serious car–producing nation. General Motors, Chrysler, and

The market changed somewhat in the 1960s, as Detroit began to worry about foreign competition, the EuropeanДmakers adopted ever–higher technology, and

Ford tried radical small cars, like the GM A–bodies, but had little success. Captive

imports and badge engineering swept through the US and UK as conglomerates

like the British Motor Corporation consolidated the market. BMC's revolutionary space–saving Mini, which first appeared in 1959,Иcaptured large sales world–wide.

Minis were marketed under the Austin and Morris names, until Mini became a marque in its own right in 1969. The trend for corporate consolidation reached Italy as niche makers like Maserati, Ferrari, and Lancia were acquired by larger companies. By the end of the decade, the number of automobile marques had been greatly reduced.

In America, performance became a prime focus of marketing, exemplified by pony cars and muscle cars. In 1964 the Ford popular Mustang appeared. In 1967, Chevrolet released the Camaro to compete with the Mustang. But everything changed in the 1970s as the 1973 oil crisis, automobile emissions control rules, Japanese and European imports, and stagnant innovation wreaked havoc on the American industry. Throughout the decade, small imported cars outsold large American ones. Small performance cars from BMW, Toyota, and Nissan took the place of big-engined cars from America and Italy.

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On the technology front, the biggest developments of the era were the widespread use of independent suspensions, wider application of fuel injection, and an increasing focus on safety in the design of automobiles. The hottest technologies of the 1960s were NSU's «Wankel engine», the gas turbine, and the turbocharger. Of these, only the last, pioneered by General Motors but popularised by BMW and Saab, was to see widespread use. Mazda had much success with its «Rotary» engine which, however, acquired a reputation as a polluting gas–guzzler.

СOther Wankel licensees, including Mercedes–Benz and General Motors, never put their designs into production after the 1973 oil crisis. (Mazda's hydrogen–fuelled successor was later to demonstrate potential as an « ultimate eco–car»). Rover and Chrysler both produced experimental gas turbine cars to no effect.

и 1948–1971бMorris Minor — a popular, and typical post–war car exported around

Cuba is famous for retaining its pre–1959 cars, known as yank tanks or maquinas, which have been kept since the Cuban revolution when the influx of

new cars slowed because of a US trade embargo. Exemplary post–war cars:

the world.

1959–2000 Mini — this quintessential small car lasted for four decades, and is one of the most famous cars of all time.

1961–1975 Jaguar E–type — the E–type saved Jaguar on the track and in the showroom, and was aАstandard for design and innovation in the 1960s. 1964–present Ford Mustang — the pony car that became one of the best–selling and most–collected cars of the era.

1969 Datsun 240Z — one of the first Japanese sports cars to be a smash hit with the North American public, it paved the way for future decades of Japanese strength in the automotive industry.ДIt was affordable, well built, and had great success both on the track and in the showroom.

MODERN ERA И

The modern era is normally defined as the 25 years preceding the current year. However, there are some technical and design aspects that differentiate modern cars from antiques. Without considering the future of the car, the modern

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era has been one of increasing standardisation, platform sharing, and computer– aided design.

Some particularly notable advances in modern times are the widespread of front–wheel drive and all–wheel drive, the adoption of the V6 engine configuration, and the ubiquity of fuel injection. While all of these advances were first attempted in earlier eras, they so dominate the market today that it is easy to overlook their significance. Nearly all modern passenger cars are front–wheel drive

Сmonocoque/unibody designs, with transversely–mounted engines, but this design was considered radical as late as the 1960s.

Body styles have changed as well in the modern era. Three types, the hatchback, minivan, and sport utility vehicle, dominate today's market, [citation иneeded] yet are relatively recent concepts. All originally emphasised practicality, but have mutated into today's high–powered luxury crossover SUV and sports wagon. The rise of pickup trucks in the United States, and SUVs worldwide has changed the face of motoring, with these « trucks» coming to command more than half of theбworld automobile market.

The modern era has also seen rapidly rising fuel efficiency and engine output. Once the automobile emissions concern of the 1970s were conquered with computerised engine management systems, power began to rise rapidly. In the 1980s, a powerful sports car might have produced 200 horsepower (150 kW) – just 20 years later, averageАpassenger cars have engines that powerful, and some performance models offer three times as much power.

Exemplary modern cars:

1966–present Toyota Corolla – a simple small Japanese saloon/sedan that has come to be the best–selling car of all time.

1967 NSU Ro 80 – the basic wedgeДprofile of this design was much emulated in subsequent decades.

1970–present Range Rover – the first take on the combination of luxury and four– wheel drive utility, the original 'SUV'. Such was the popularity of the original Range Rover Classic that a new model was not brought out until 1996.

1973–present Mercedes–Benz S–Class – electronicИAntilock Braking System, supplemental restraint airbags, seat belt pretensioners, and electronic traction control system all made their debut on the S–Class. These features would later become standard throughout the car industry.

1975–present BMW 3 Series – the 3 Series has been on Car and Driver magazine's annual Ten Best list 17 times, making it the longest running entry in the list. 1977–present Honda Accord saloon/sedan – this Japanese sedan became the most popular car in the United States in the 1990s, pushing the Ford Taurus aside, and setting the stage for today's upscale Asian sedans.

1981–1989 Dodge Aries and Plymouth Reliant – the «K–cars» that saved Chrysler as a major manufacturer. These models were some of the first successful American front–wheel drive, fuel–efficient compact cars.

1983–present Chrysler minivans – the two–box minivan design nearly pushed the station wagon out of the market, and presaged today's crossover SUVs.

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1986–present Ford Taurus – this mid–sized front–wheel drive sedan with modern computer–assisted design dominated the American market in the late 1980s, and created a design revolution in North America.

2.What is common and distinguishing between them?

3.What period has played the greatest role in the history of automobile (according to your mind)?

4.Look through the classification given below. Put it into correct order.

5.Discuss advantages and disadvantages of it.

CAR SHOW CLASS DEFINITIONSИ

A different classification system is used for purposes of differentiating vehicles in most car shows. While there is little doubt about the definition of classes that are self–described such as «Mustang» or « Firebird», there is often confusion about the definition of classes that are not as readily understood. The following classes are often used in car shows across America – the definitions are determined either by state regulations, the National Street Rod Association, or have been gathered from other reliable sources:

Street Rod – а motor vehicle, or a reproduction thereof, with a model year of 1948 or older which has been materially altered or modified by the removal, addition or

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substitution of essential parts and with a gross weight or registered gross weight of not more than 9,000 pounds.

Classic car —A motor vehicle, but not a reproduction thereof, at least 30 years old, not materially altered or modified by the removal, addition or substitution of essential parts except that such parts represent the original

Hot Rod – Any car rebuilt or modified for higher speed, faster acceleration, or a sportier look. Many automobiles may be called hot rods, including some used in Сdrag racing. They may be composed of used or newly fabricated parts. Can be a kit

car.

Custom car – a factory–built vehicle that has been modified in either to improve its performance, often by altering or replacing the engine and transmission, or it

иAntique car — A motor vehicle, but not a reproduction thereof, at least 25 years old, which has been maintained in or restored to a condition which is substantially in conformity with manufacturer specifications and appearance.

may be a personal design by the builder, making the car look unique and unlike any car that might have been factory built. Though distinct from hot rods there is debate among customizers and rodders as to where the line should be drawn. A Custom Car cannot be a kit car, as a kit car is not a factory–built vehicle that has

Special Interest – a vehicle uniquely distinguishable from the usual, or designed

for a particular purpose (i.e. fire truck, MASH jeep, tank, surf wagon, bus, race

been modifiedбfrom the original configuration.

cars etc.) which would pique the interest of the public at large because of its uniqueness or specialty function.

Kit car – any vehicle that is created primarily from kit or prefabricated parts, and

is a reproduction or replica. An original factory–built vehicle that utilizes

Brass Era car – beginning with theДfirst horseless carriages, named for the brass fittings used for such things as lights and radiators. Starting with the first commercial automobiles of the 1890s to about 1918–19. Includes most Edwardian cars

Veteran car – any motor vehicle built prior to 1905

Edwardian car – any vehicle built from 1905 – 1918. Includes all brass era cars Vintage car – commonly defined as a car built between 1919 and 1930. The Classic Car Club of America prefers 1925 since it is the pre–classic car period.

Language practice

1.Make adjectives from given nouns according to the scheme: NOUN +FUL=adjective;

NOUN +LESS=adjective:

a)use;

b)power;

c)care;

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d) help; e) hope; f) color.

2. Translate them into English.

g) make better; h) control.

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Writing

1. Look through the classification given below.

2. Chose one point. Prepare a report devoted to it in accordance with the following plan:

a) Definition.

b) History of origin.

3. Tryбto use all phrases and word structures from section «Language practice» in your report.

CAR CLASSIFICATION

Car classificationАis subjective since many vehicles fall into multiple categories or do not fit well into any. Not all car types are common in all countries and names for the same vehicle can differ by region. Furthermore, some descriptions may be interpreted differently in different places. Broadly speaking, there are a set of classifications which are widely understood in North America, and another set which are somewhatДunderstood in English–speaking contexts in Europe. Some terms borrowed from non–English languages may have different meanings when used in their native language.

Microcar

Straddling the boundary between car and motorbike, these vehicles have engines under 1.0 litre, typically seat only twoИpassengers, and are sometimes unorthodox in construction. Some microcars are three–wheelers, while the majority have four wheels. Microcars were popular in post–war Europe, where their appearance led them to be called « Bubble cars». A descendant of the microcar is the modern Smart Fortwo. Bubble car is a subjective term used for some small, economical automobiles, usually produced in the 1950s and 1960s.

Smart ForTwo

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The Messerschmitt KR175 and KR200, and the FMR Tg500, had aircraft– style bubble canopies, giving rise to the term bubble car to refer to all these post– war microcars. Isettas and others also had a bubble–like appearance.

Bubble cars became popular in Europe at that time as a demand for cheap personal motorised transport emerged and fuel prices were high due in part to the 1956 Suez Crisis. Most of them were three–wheelers, which in many places qualified them for inexpensive taxes and licensing as motorcycles.

СMost bubble cars were manufactered in Germany, including by the former

German military aircraft manufacturers, Messerschmitt and Heinkel. Automobile and motorcycle manufacturer BMW manufactured the Italian Iso Rivolta Isetta under licence, using an engine from one of their own motorcycles. France also

иdesign in order to take advantage of the three–wheel vehicle laws in the United Kingdom. There were also indigenous British three wheeled microcars, including the larger Regal and Robin from the Reliant Motor Company in Staffordshire and the smaller P50 and Trident from the Peel Engineering Company on the Isle of Man. А

produced large numbers of similar tiny vehicles called voiturettes, but unlike the German makes, these were rarely sold abroad.

The United Kingdom had licence–built right–hand drive versions of the Heinkel Kabine and the Isetta. The British version of the Isetta was built with only

one rear wheelбinstead of the narrow–tracked pair of wheels in the normal Isetta

Bubble cars were superseded by a new wave of 'proper small cars' like the 1959 Austin Mini, which gave far more functionality for their owners for only slightly higher costs. However, the Reliant Robin remained in production until 1997, and production was briefly restarted under licence for a few months in 2002.

ДCity car

A city car is a small automobile intended for use in urban areas. Unlike microcars, a city car's greater speed, capacity and (in perception at least) occupant protection are safer in mixed traffic environments and weather conditions. While city cars can reach highway speeds, that is not their intended use. In Japan, city cars are called kei cars. Kei cars have to meet strictИsize and engine requirements: engines have a maximum displacement of 660 cm³ and the car's length must be under 3400 mm. A city car (or urban car) is a small, moderately powered automobile intended for use in urban areas.

It is comparable in size and features to a neighborhood electric vehicle («NEV»), has four seats, and is typically 3.4–3.6 metres (11–12 ft.) long. These cars have been sold in Europe since the 1960s, and now are an official car classification. They are also known as A–Segment cars. Most mainstream manufacturers have one or even two city cars in their lineup. The city car's convenient speed and occupant protection allow relatively safe operation in mixed traffic environments and in all weather conditions.

One of the earliest city cars was the American–made Crosley, a four passenger vehicle from the late 1940s. While many cars of the 1950s are small enough to be considered city cars today, these cars have been replaced by larger cars with each passing generation. Exceptions are the smaller Fiats, especially the

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Citroën C2, Suzuki Swift, Smart Forfour, Toyota Yaris and Peugeot 1007 (the last one which can also be labelled as a mini MPV).

These vehicles are hard to classify, since their size does not fit the «city car» or «supermini» categories. A possibility is to compare the price and interior room with superminis: the Yaris is definitely a supermini, whereas the Tata Indica is closer to a city car. In addition, in the last few years some « true» city cars were released: the Fiat Panda (2003), the Kia Picanto (2004), the Citroën C1/Peugeot

С107/Toyota Aygo (2005), Renault Twingo (2006), Fiat Nuova 500 (2006), the Ford Ka (2006) and Hyundai i10 (2007).

иKei car

Kei car, K–бcar, or keijidōsha (« light automobile») is a Japanese category of small automobiles, including passenger cars, vans, and pickup trucks. They are designed to exploit local tax and insurance relaxations, and in more rural areas are exempted from the requirement to certify that adequate parking is available for the vehicle. These standards originated in the times following the end of the Second World War, when most Japanese could not afford a full–sized car yet had enough to buy a motorcycle. To promote the growth of the car industry, as well as to offer an alternative delivery method to small business and shop owners, kei car standards

black background for commercial use) in English and Spanish–speaking circles. Because regulations only restrict physical size, engine displacement and

power, manufacturers have introduced many advanced technologies to the class. As a result, kei cars are often available with forcedИinduction engines, automatic and CVT transmissions, front–, rear– and four–wheel drive, hybrid drivetrains, air conditioning, GPS and many other features.

Daihatsu, Honda, Mitsubishi, Smart, Subaru, and Suzuki all manufacture kei cars. Nissan sells Mitsubishi and Suzuki models while Mazda sells Suzuki models under licence.

Hatchback

Hatchback is a term designating an automobile design, containing a passenger cabin with an integrated cargo space, accessed from behind the vehicle by a single, top–hinged tailgate or large flip–up window. The vehicle commonly has two rows of seats, with the rear seat able to fold down to increase cargo space. Hatchback vehicles are functionally similar to station wagons (which are intended to carry large volumes), but distinguished by a (much) smaller load area. The typical hatchback roof rakes down steeply behind the C–Pillar, resulting in very little car length behind the rear wheels and thus no room for a side window over

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the load area. A good example of the difference can be seen in the 1999–2007 Ford Focus, which offers both a wagon (Focus ZTW/ZXW) and hatchback (Focus ZX3 and ZX5) models. The 2002–2007 Mazda 6 also came in five–door hatchback and wagon configurations.

Alternatively, cars with a longer rear end need a much more slanted rear window which is known as a liftback, in comparison to traditional hatchbacks where the tailgate is more vertical/upright. Liftbacks are sedan–size cars with a

Сfastback profile and a hatchback–type tailgate. However, the term « liftback» did not gain such mainstream acceptance as « hatchback» or « sedan», for instance being almost never used in the United Kingdom where liftback cars are particularly popular. There, 5–door liftbacks are in general called hatchbacks, though 3–door liftbacks are often referred to as coupés by certain automakers, such as the Mercedes–Benz CLC–Class.

Typically, most compact cars offer a hatchback configuration, while midsize and larger cars have a wagon style. There are some exceptions, with compact wagons such as the BMW 3–Series (E36), Ford Focus ZTW, Toyota Corolla

The tailgate is also referred to as the hatch. Hatchbacks are often described as three–door (two entry doors and the hatch) or five–door (four entry doors and the hatch) cars. In Europe, city cars, superminis, and small family cars are usually hatchbacks. Small cars often incorporate a hatch tailgate to make the best use of available space. Especially in smaller models, hatchbacks are often truncated, with the tailgate nearly vertical, to reduce the car's footprint. This is an important consideration in countries where small streets and traffic congestion are big factors (see for instance the Japanese Kei cars).

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Hatchbacks frequently include fold–down rear seats, which enable a substantial portion of the interior space to be used as a cargo area. Usually, the rear seat can be folded partially (for instance 1/2, 1/3 or 2/3) or completely to expand the cargo space. Hatchbacks typically have a parcel shelf: a rigid shelf covering the cargo space that is hinged behind the rear seats and lifts with the tailgate. An alternative is a flexible roll–up tonneau cover.

In many countries, where a hatchback and a conventional sedan are available Сfor the same model, sedans are typically more popular. This is not the case in France which has an old tradition of building hatchbacks and where sedan models are sometimes not even sold, like the Renault Laguna or in Great Britain where the 1997–2009 Toyota Avensis Hatchback outsold its StationWagon and Sedan

иthan the Mazda3 sedan. High performance variants of hatchbacks are now common, known as « hot hatches».

models. Manufacturers have even been forced to offer a notchback version of cars that are sold only as hatchbacks elsewhere to comply with the preferences of clients, as with the Citroën C–Triomphe. Costwise, hatchbacks are priced differently than their sedan counterparts. For example, the Nissan Versa hatchback

is cheaperбthan Versa sedan, while the Mazda3 Sport hatchback is more expensive

Sedan

Sedan car (AmericanАEnglish) or saloon car (British English) is a passenger car with two rows of seats and adequate passenger space in the rear compartment for adult passengers. The vehicle usually has a separate rear trunk (boot in British

Sedan car

styles for modern automobiles. Д

English) for luggage, although some manufacturers such as Chevrolet, Tatra, and

A sedan seats four or more people and has a fixed roof that is full–height up to the rear window. The roof structure will typically have a fixed «B» pillar on

Volkswagen have made rear–engined models. It is one of the most common body И

sedan models. Most commonly it is a four–door; two–door models are rare, but they do occur (more so historically). In the U.S., the term sedan has been used to denote a car with fixed window frames, as opposed to the hardtop style without a «B» pillar and where the sash, if any, winds down with the glass. However, true hardtops have become increasingly rare.

A notchback sedan is a three–box sedan, where the passenger volume is clearly distinct from the trunk volume of the vehicle (when seen from the side). The roof is on one plane, generally parallel to the ground, the rear window at a sharp angle to the roof, and the trunk lid is also parallel to the ground. Historically, this has been a popular and arguably the most traditional form of passenger vehicle.

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A fastback sedan is a two–box sedan, with continuous slope from the roof to the base of the decklid, but excludes the hatchback feature. Marketing terminology is often misleading in this area – for example, Daimler AG calls the Mercedes– Benz CLS–Class sedan a four–door coupé because its semi–fastback design tries to give the impression of a coupé. Certain sedans are edging close to being one–box vehicles, where the windshield is steeply raked from the hood and the rear window slopes toward almost the end of the car, leaving just a short rear deck that is part of

Сthe trunk lid – the 2006 4–door Honda Civic is an example of this. They are not fastbacks because their bodyline changes from the roof to the rear deck. Their steeply raked rear windows end with a decklid that does not continue down to the bumper. Instead, their rear ends are tall – sometimes in a Kammback style – to иincrease trunk space.

Typically, this design is chosen for its aerodynamic advantages. Automakers can no longer afford the penalty in fuel consumption produced by the traditional notchback three box form.

TheбSociety of Automotive Engineers defines such a vehicle as any two– door model with rear accommodation greater than or equal to 33 cubic feet (0.93 m³) in volume (a calculation made by adding the legroom, shoulder room, and headroom). By this standard, the Chevrolet Monte Carlo, Ferrari 612 Scaglietti, and Mercedes–Benz CL–Class coupés are all two–door sedans. Only a few sources, however (includingАthe magazine Car and Driver), use the two–door sedan label in this manner.

In the popular vernacular, a two–door sedan is defined by appearance and not by volume; vehicles with a B–pillar between the front and rear windows are generally called two–door sedans, while hardtops (without the pillar, and often incorporating a sloping backlight) areДcalled coupés.

In 1970 GM introduced its first subcompact car. The Chevrolet Vega two– door sedan was referred to as a 'thin–pillar' sedan.

The Mazda RX–8 meets the volume requirement to be called a sedan, but it has vestigial rear–hinged rear doors, so some call it 2+2–door sedan. Another term for a coupé endowed with rear–hinged doors isИa «quad coupé». Although this may simply be vernacular, based on a possible copyright by General Motors, for its Saturn Ion Quad–Coupe.

In historic terminology a sedan will have a frame around the door windows, while the hardtop has frameless door glass. A true hardtop sedan design also has no «B» pillar (the roof support behind the front doors). This body style has an open feel, but requires extra underbody strengthening for structural rigidity. The hardtop design can be considered separately (i.e., a vehicle can be simply called a four– door hardtop), or it can be called a hardtop sedan. During the 1960s and 1970s, hardtop sedans were often sold as sport sedans by American manufacturers and were among the top selling body styles. During the 1980s, automakers in the U.S. focused on removing weight and increasing strength, and their new four–door sedans with B–pillars were called pillared hardtops or pillared sedans. The sport sedan term has since been appropriated for other uses. In Japan, and among

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Japanese manufacturers worldwide, the hardtop design was popular among luxury sedans throughout the 1990s.

Hatchback (a.k.a. liftback) sedans typically have the fastback profile, but instead of a trunk lid, the entire back of the vehicle lifts up (using a liftgate or hatch). A vehicle with four passenger doors and a liftgate at the rear can be called a four–door hatchback, four–door hatchback sedan, or five–door sedan. An example of such is the Chevrolet Malibu Maxx. There can also be two–door hatchback

Сsedans (three–door sedans), by the same technical explanation for two–door sedans. Examples of this design are the Volkswagen Golf, and Chevrolet Chevette.

Strictly speaking limousine sedans have a separate compartment for the driver and the passenger compartment is long enough to contain at least two иcomfortable, forward facing bench seats. The term limousine can refer to a large sedan, especially if hired from a limo service. Chauffeured limousines are primarily used by individuals for weddings, businesses for meetings, as well as for airport and sightseeing transportation. Vehicles used for these means are usually Lincoln TownбCar, Cadillac, or Mercedes. Chauffeurs are professional drivers, usually with experience in the transportation industry or tourism industry. Chauffeured sedans are owned either by private owners, livery services, or corporations. Large corporations as well as governments commonly provide luxury sedans to top executives, as well as VIP guests. Chauffeured sedans, such as the Lincoln Town Car, Аmay also be stretched into limousines that are capable of seating up to twenty people.

The word sedan is possibly derived from a southern Italian dialect derivative of Italian sedia «chair» (the first sedan was said to have been introduced from Naples). However, Portuguese and Spanish navigators and colonists encountered litters of various sorts in India, Japan,ДMexico, and Peru. They were imported into Spain in the late sixteenth century. Soon the fashion spread into France and then England. All the names for these derived from the root «sed–» from the Latin «sella» – the traditional name for a carried chair. The first automobile to use that configuration was the 1899 Renault Voiturette Type B.

The derivation from the town of Sedan in ИFrance, where it was said to have been made or first used, lacks historical evidence, according to OED. The word sedan was later used to refer to a litter or windowed box containing a passenger seat carried by two or more bearers.

In North American English and American Spanish, the term sedan is used (accented as « sedán» in Spanish). In British English, a car of this configuration is called a saloon and has its engine under the bonnet at the front, and has a boot for luggage at the rear. Hatchback sedans are usually just called hatchbacks; chauffeured sedans are referred to as limousines. The British English term is sometimes used by British car manufacturers in the United States. For example, the Rolls–Royce Park Ward was sold as a saloon in the United States, while the smaller Silver Seraph was called a sedan. In Australia and New Zealand, the American term sedan is used, albeit with the British terms boot and bonnet being retained. In other languages, sedans are known as berline (French), berlina (European Spanish, European Portuguese, Romanian, and Italian); although these

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terms also may include hatchbacks. These terms, besides sedan, derive from types of horse–drawn carriages. In German, the term Limousine is used for sedans, as well as for limousines.

Station wagon

This modified MG ZT–T became the world's fastest estate/station wagon in 2003. A station wagon is a passenger automobile with a body style similar to a sedan but with the roofline following the full, sometimes extended rear cargo area,

Сan extra row of sometimes rear–facing seats, ending with a more vertical door than on a hatchback.

Also sometimes referred to simply as a wagon, the term 'station wagon' is used in American, Australian, Canadian and New Zealand English, while the term estate иcar or simply estate is used in British English. European manufacturers such as Audi, BMW, and Mercedes–Benz have often referred to their wagons as «Avant», «Touring», and «Estate» respectively to distinguish them from their sedan counterparts.

Certainбcars with this body style have historically been called a shooting brake, a British term. A few models are referred to as a break, using the French term (which is sometimes given in full as break de chasse — literally « hunting break»). A common German term for this type, Kombi, is also sometimes used. Volkswagen's proprietary name for a Kombi is Variant, Opel sometimes uses the word Caravan, BMWАuses Touring, Wartburg used Tourist, and Audi's examples are traditionally called Avant. Fiat often uses the term Weekend, while Alfa Romeo uses Sportwagon. Some British makes under BMC used Traveller or Countryman for the type. Peugeot and Land Rover have sometimes used « station wagon» even in markets which use British English. Another term infrequently used by some American car makers is stationДsedan.

Most station wagons are modified sedan–type car bodies, having the main interior area extended to the near–vertical rear window over what would otherwise be the trunk (boot) of the sedan version. A hatchback car, although meeting a similar description, would not enjoy the full height of the passenger cabin all the way to the back; the rear glass of a hatchback beingИsloped further from vertical, and the hatch tending not to reach fully to the rear bumper, as it commonly would in a station wagon. Station wagons also have side windows over the cargo area, whereas some hatchbacks have thick «C» pillars and no cargo area windows. Two exceptions to this rule include Rambler station wagons (1952–62) on which the roof line subtly dipped down over the cargo area, and GM's Oldsmobile Vista Cruiser (1964–72) and Buick Sport Wagon (1964–69) on which the rear roof section was slightly elevated and combined with three (1968–69 Buick, 1968–72 Olds) or four (1964–67) skylights; the «sportwagon» name has been popularized again in recent years by some manufacturers. Certain models of Land Rover have also been described by the manufacturer as station wagons (even in British usage); these had a tall wagon–like body with extra « alpine lights», or windows, above the cargo bay side windows.

The rear door is usually top–hinged, but on many four–wheel drive–style vehicles it is side–hinged. The original Range Rover, and a few traditional sedan–

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based wagons, have a horizontally split two–piece rear door rather than a single hatch. The Morris Minor and Mini Travellers, amongst other examples, have a vertically split pair of doors at the rear.

The popularity of the minivan in the 1980s, sport utility vehicles in the mid– 1990s, and crossovers in the 2000s is credited with the decline of the traditional station wagon in North America. The majority of North American customers (especially in the US) have generally found the styling of trunked cars to be more

Сelegant and dignified than that of hatchbacks and station wagons. While hatchbacks have enjoyed some resurgence since the mid–2000s due to high gas prices, mass market station wagons have all but disappeared from North America, as wagon versions of midsize cars such as the Ford Taurus were phased out by the

иinterior area extended to the near–vertical rear window over what would otherwise be the trunk (boot) of the sedan version. A hatchback car, although meeting a similar description, would not enjoy the full height of the passenger cabin all the

2000s, while the Chevrolet Malibu MAXX and Dodge Magnum had short production lives. The only long–time running wagons in the North American market are the luxury offerings from Audi, BMW, and Mercedes–Benz.

Comparison with hatchbacks

way to the back; the rear glass of a hatchback being sloped further from vertical,

and the hatch tending not to reach fully to the rear bumper, as it commonly would

Mostбstation wagons are modified sedan–type car bodies, having the main

Cruiser (1964–72) andАBuick Sport Wagon (1964–69) on which the rear roof section was slightly elevated and combined with three (1968–69 Buick, 1968–72

in a station wagon. Station wagons also have side windows over the cargo area,

whereas some hatchbacks have thick «C» pillars and no cargo area windows. Two

exceptions to this rule include Rambler station wagons (1952–62) on which the

roof line subtly dipped down over the cargo area, and GM's Oldsmobile Vista

Olds) or four (1964–67) skylights; the « sportwagon» name has been popularized again in recent years by some manufacturers. Certain models of Land Rover have

also been described by the manufacturer as station wagons (even in British usage);

(much) larger load area. The typical hatchback roofИrakes down steeply behind the C–Pillar, resulting in very little car length behind the rear wheels and thus no room for a side window over the load area. A good example of the difference can be seen in the 1999–2007 Ford Focus, which offers both a wagon (Focus ZTW) and hatchback (Focus ZX3 and ZX5) models. The 2002–2007 Mazda 6 also came in five–door hatchback and wagon configurations.

Typically, most compact cars offer a hatchback configuration, while midsize and larger cars have a wagon style. There are some exceptions, with compact wagons such as the BMW 3–Series (E36), Ford Focus ZTW, Toyota Corolla Fielder, and Mercedes–Benz C–Class Estate. These four lineups have or had hatchback configurations as well, such as the 3–Series hatchback, Focus ZT3 and

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ZT5, Corolla Matrix (or simply Matrix), and CLC–Class (formerly the C–Class Sportcoupe).

A supermini

A supermini is a British car classification term that describes automobiles larger than a city car but smaller than a small family car. This car class is also known as the B–segment across Europe, and as Subcompact in North America.

The term «supermini» appeared around 1985. The influential Consumers' Association first used the term in its annual Car Buying Guide in October of that year. Because the term was a new one, it gave an explanation at the start of a section entitled Small Hatchbacks. It said small hatchbacks were known popularly as superminis and while similar to the Mini they were more spacious inside and more versatile. This definition madeДclear that a «supermini» was something larger than a Mini yet smaller than a typical car of the time. In its 1985 report, it included such cars as the Austin Metro, Volkswagen Polo and Ford Fiesta. Smaller or more basic cars were grouped under a Bargain Basement heading and included the Mini, Citroën 2CV, Fiat 126 and Renault 4.

The 1986 Car Buying Guide, published in June of that year, was more confident of the term and this time headed theИsection Small hatchbacks or 'superminis'. The Mini and 2CV were still relegated to the cheaper category of Bargain Basement. By the time of the 1989 Car Buying Guide, there was no longer any need to explain what supermini meant and the title appeared without comment. In its introduction, the Guide said superminis were available as three–door and five–door hatchbacks, and sometimes as saloons with a boot. The Mini and Renault 4 were still grouped separately, this year under the heading Cheapies.

By 1990 the demand for the cheapest cars, a number of them from low–cost economies in eastern Europe, was fading. For the first time the two or three remaining examples in the new car market, including the original Mini, were grouped under the heading superminis along with the couple of dozen true superminis that now dominated the cheaper end of the market. However, in its separate guide to car reliability in June 1990, the magazine grouped the smallest cars under the heading « Minis and Superminis», indicating that the smallest cars

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were still perceived as being distinct from the larger and better equipped « Superminis». These smaller cars are now called city cars.

A compact car

A compact car (North America), or small family car (Europe), is a classification of cars which are larger than a supermini but smaller than or equal to a mid–size car. The term often leads into confusion, however, since international compact cars are somewhat larger than their North American equivalents, mostly

Сbecause no supermini/subcompact size is manufactured by American, Mexican and Canadian car makers up to date.

Current compact car size, for US and international models respectively, is approximately 4,100 mm (161 in) and 4,450 mm (175 in) long for hatchbacks, or

и to 4,700 mmб(185 in) in international–based models.

4,400 mm (173 in) and 4,600 mm (181 in) long for cabriolets, sedans or station wagons. Multi–purpose vehicles and sport utility vehicles based on small family cars (often called compact MPVs and compact SUVs) have similar sizes, ranging from 4,200 mm (165 in) to 4,500 mm (177 in) in US and from 4,400 mm (173 in)

Common engines are 1.5 to 2.4–litre straight–4s, either petrol or Diesel, with a range between 100 bhp (75 kW) and 170 bhp (127 kW). Some models also have economical 1.3 or 1.4–litre units. High–performance versions, called hot hatches or

sport compact sedans, may have turbocharged 2.0 or 2.5–litre engines, or even V6 3.2–litre units, ranging maximum outputs from 170 bhp (127 kW) to 300 bhp (224 kW). Small European family cars include the Ford Focus, Opel Astra, Peugeot 307, Renault Mégane,Fiat Bravo (2007) and Volkswagen Golf. Japanese branded examples include Honda Civic, Mazda 3, Subaru Impreza, and Toyota Corolla.

A full-size car is a marketing term used in North America for an automobile larger than a mid-size car. In the United States, the EPA uses «large car» to denote full-size cars.

Full-size cars are usually denoted for their length, nearing 5,000 mm (197 in) in basic sedans, with luxury models often tending to reach 5,250 mm (207 in). Previously, a wheelbase greater than 110 inches (2.79 metres) was the criterion. The term first appeared in the early 1960s to define what also became known as « standard» size cars from the new compact and intermediate models then being introduced. Full-size is also defined in space measurement as greater than 120 ft³ (3,300 L) of interior volume.

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A «large family car», the equivalent of a full-size car class in Australian terms, often denoted by width. Therefore, the Ford Falcon, Toyota Aurion and Holden Commodore are considered large cars in the Australian and New Zealand markets. These cars are sometimes referred to as «family cars» in Australia, and are typically 4.8 meters (about 15 ft, 9 in) or more in length.

In Europe, the terms «executive car» and « luxury car» may refer to cars of this size (which are mostly luxury cars), such as the Audi A8, BMW 7–Series,

Сиreferred to as Entry–level luxury car.

Mercedes–Benz S–Class, Volkswagen Phaeton, and Jaguar XJ.

Compact executive car

Compact executive car is a mainly British car classification term applied to premium cars smaller than executive cars. In American English, they are usually

б TheАAlfa Romeo 159 is a compact executive car

Dimensionally, these vehicles are often shorter than large family cars, and the rear leg room and boot/trunk size is smaller to accommodate larger engines. While they offer the buyer less equipment, inner room or engine for the money, the material and building quality is higher and the nameplate itself is part of the value proposition. Compact executive cars are usually available in saloon, estate, coupé and cabriolet body styles.

This market segment is fairly new, pioneered by the BMW 3 Series, which found consumer demand for a small but upscale saloon in the late 1970s, as well as

Sport compact

2006 US–spec Subaru Impreza WRX STI

A sport compact is a high–performance version of a compact car or a subcompact car. They are typically are front engined, front–wheel drive coupés, sedans, or hatchbacks driven by a straight–4 gasoline engine. Typical sport compacts include such examples as Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution, Mitsubishi

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Eclipse, Honda Civic Si, Ford Contour SVT, the Focus SVT, the Opel Astra GTC, the Renault Clio V6/Sport, the Mazdaspeed3, the Nissan Sentra SE–R Spec V, the Honda Prelude, the Toyota Celica and Scion tC TRD, and the Dodge SRT–4.

The design philosophy of a sport compact sharply contrasts with those of 'true' sports cars. Sports cars are designed with a performance–oriented philosophy, often compromising cargo space, seating, gas mileage, (daily) drivability, and reliability. A sport compact is usually designed with a practical design philosophy

Сand profit in mind. This philosophy has led to several compromises when it comes to performance, such as front wheel drive, conservative engine design, and platform sharing. Electronic control units are also programmed for optimal gas mileage.

иPerformance–oriented sport compacts focus on improving handling and increasing engine efficiency, rather than increasing engine size or conversion to rear–wheel drive. For example, the Celica GT–S and Civic Si are both sport compacts that produce 100 hp./ L of displacement, and have handling superior to their stockбtrims and other cars in its price range.

The exact definition of a sport compact remains a subject of debate. Some believe that any 4–cylinder compact car falls into this category, clearly placing cars such as the Nissan 240SX or Acura Integra in the sport compact category. However, the Lotus Esprit was offered with a 4–cylinder engine that produced greater than 100 horsepowerА(75 kW) per litre engine displacement –– a feat achieved only by exotic sports cars at the time. Today, its performance is largely eclipsed by high performance versions of compact cars such as the Subaru Impreza WRX STi, Volkswagen R32 or the Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution. As in most automotive bull, the category «sports compact» is not precise.

Nevertheless, the designationДof the « sport compact» is generally reserved for the higher–performance versions of common, lower–performance compact and economy vehicles. A car that is specifically designed to be a performance automobile (a sports car such as grand tourer or an exotic sport car) may also be compact in size, but is clearly delineated from an ordinary compact by manufacturer's performance intent. Thus, a «sportsИcar» is a car specifically intended to provide elevated vehicle performance. The «sports compact», on the other hand, is a compact car that has been improved (by owner or manufacturer) to provide an elevated degree of vehicle performance over the base version of the car.

Note that the debate is often confused by arguments of power, since engine power is a clear indication of straight–line acceleration performance. However, categorization by number of engine cylinders, the addition of forced induction, or even an arbitrary horsepower reference does not provide clearer categorization. This is due to the rapidly advancing performance capability of new sport compact cars as compared to yesterday's sports cars. Cars such as the Toyota Supra, Acura NSX, Lotus Elise, and the Nissan Skyline clearly fall into a different market segment than even the highest performance production versions of the Honda Civic and specifically prepared post–production–tuned automobiles.

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Despite this, Sport Compact Car Magazine often contains articles on the Toyota Supra, Nissan 350Z, Honda S2000, Lotus Elise, Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution, in addition to other sport compacts.

It has become fairly popular to modify or customize a sport compact, commonly referred to as tuning. This has given rise to the term «tuner» for the owners of modified sport compacts (and other vehicle classes), and by extension, their automobiles. As with trucks and other vehicle categories, there is a large

Сmarket for performance–enhancing equipment designed to fit small cars. Unfortunately, tuning» is a term that is also symbolized by cosmetic and non– performance related vehicle modifications. It is the subject of some controversy whether to recognize a compact «tuner» car that has been modified to offer lesser иvehicle performance than a « sport compact».

Restoration of a Japanese import to its JDM specifications (or J–Spec) has become a fairly popular modification for many tuners in North America. It is quite common for Japanese automakers to produce or export less powerful versions of their modelsбto the North American market. The common exception to this is the 1993–1998 Toyota Supra which received a more powerful engine for US export due to the «Gentleman's Agreement» in Japan. Such modifications usually involve swapping engines and transmissions. Popular examples include the conversion of parts from a JDM Silvia onto a USDM Nissan 240SX, or replacing JDM Honda parts and equipment (suchАas from a Civic Type–R) onto a United States Domestic Market USDM Honda Civic. Most Hondas are particularly good examples of this because of the cost saving «parts bin» designing used at Honda. To save production costs many high–end production equipment use the same or similar mounting locations as a cheaper or lower–performance alternative. These modifications can also be cosmetic,Дsuch as the replacement of the front fascia or rear spoiler with its JDM counterpart.

Small cars with high power ratings can be formidable racing vehicles. The Sports Car Club of America SCCA has long hosted races for compact cars. More recently, sport compacts have become so popular that the Australian National Drag Racing Association (ANDRA) (www.andra.com.au)Иnow have special classes for sport compact racing, and the National Hot Rod Association (NHRA) has made sport compact cars eligible to compete in the Lucas Oil Sportsman Series, and Sport Compact «Pro RWD» type cars are used in the NHRA Pro Stock category as the Chevrolet Cobalt is used as the manufacturer's car in the class.

ANDRA has no less than 7 dedicated classes catering for the popularity of Sport Compact Drag Racing: 1 – Pro Rear Wheel Drive 2 – Sport Modified 3 – OZ Modified 4 – Front Runner 5 – All Motor 6 – Sport Rear Wheel Drive 7 – Sport Front Wheel Drive. All these classes are officially sanctioned by ANDRA and are recognised through a series of successful events and National Records. Some highly modified sport compact dragsters can accelerate from 0–60 mph in less than four seconds.

Sport compacts are fairly popular for autocross competitions. The Acura Integra, Toyota Celica, and MINI Cooper are some of the more successful sport compacts within their classes. It is also worth noting that sport compact cars have

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been the backbone of the latest motorsport discipline to emerge – drifting – since its beginnings.

The former NASCAR Goody's DASH Series found new life in 2005 when acquisitioned by International Sport Compact Auto Racing Series (ISCARS) DASH Touring, which tours primarily on asphalt ovals throughout the southeast. In 2008 the series accepted the sanction of American Speed Association (ASA).

Grand tourer

СиA classic Gran Turismo, the 1962 Ferrari 250 GTO

A grandбtourer (Italian: gran turismo) (GT) is a high–performance luxury automobile designed for long–distance driving. The most common format is a two–door coupé with either a two–seat or a 2+2 arrangement.

The term derives from the Italian phrase gran turismo, homage to the tradition of the grand tour, used to represent automobiles regarded as grand tourers abilities to make long–distance, high–speed journeys in both comfort and style. The English translation is grand touring; the French is grand tourisme.

more space for the cabinАthan mid–mounted engine layouts. Softer suspensions, greater storage, and more luxurious appointments add to their driving appeal. Some

Grand tourers differ from standard two–seat sports cars in typically being

larger, heavier, and emphasizing comfort over straight–out performance.

Historically, true GTs have been front–engined with rear–wheel drive, which leave

very high–performance grand tourers, such as the Aston Martin DB9, Ferrari 599 GTB Fiorano, Jaguar XK8, BMW 8–Series, and the Mercedes–Benz SLR

McLaren make various compromises in the opposite direction while rivalling

History of the term supercarИ

The term «Supercar» was first noted by Car & Track in 1917 to describe an Alfa Romeo Monza. An advertisement for the Ensign Six, a 6.7 L (~409 cu in) high–performance car similar to the Bentley Speed Six, appeared in The Times for 11 November 1920 with the phrase « If you are interested in a supercar, you cannot afford to ignore the claims of the Ensign 6». The Oxford English Dictionary also cites the use of the word in an advertisement for an unnamed car in The Motor dated 3 November 1920, «The Supreme development of the British super–car» and defines the phrase as suggesting 'a car superior to all others'. The phrase Supercar did not become popular until much later and is often said to have has its revival originated with British motor journalist L. J. K. Setright writing about the Lamborghini Miura in CAR Magazine in the mid–1960s. The magazine claims to have «coined the phrase» although it was also used in May 1965 by the American

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Magazine Car Life, in a test of the Pontiac GTO. By the 1970s and 1980s the phrase was in regular use, if not precisely defined. During the late 20th century, the term Supercar was used to describe «a very expensive, fast or powerful car with a centrally located engine» and stated in more general terms: « it must be very fast, with sporting handling to match», «it should be sleek and eye–catching» and its price should be «one in a rarefied atmosphere of its own».

иautomobiles. At its most widely accepted the term refers to American 2–door rear wheel drive mid–size cars of the late 1960s and early 1970s equipped with large,

expensive б2+2 GTs intended for high–speed touring and road racing. Building on the American phenomenon and developing simultaneously in their own markets,

Muscle car is a term used to refer to a variety of high performance

powerful V8s and sold at an affordable price for street use and drag racing,

formally and informally. As such, they are distinct from two–seat sports cars and

muscle cars also emerged in their own fashions in Australia, South Africa, the UK and elsewhere.

А ConvertibleД

A convertible is a type of automobile in which the roof can retract and fold away, converting it from an enclosed to an open–air vehicle. Many different automobile body styles are manufactured and marketed in convertible form.

A convertible type of automobileИ

Roof designs vary widely, but a few characteristics are common to all convertibles. Roofs are affixed to the body of the vehicle and are usually not detachable. Instead the roof is hinged and folds away, either into a recess behind the rear seats or into the boot or trunk of the vehicle. The roof may operate either manually or automatically via hydraulic or electrical actuators, and the roof itself may be constructed of soft or rigid material. Soft–tops are made of vinyl, canvas or other textile material, while hard–tops are made of steel, aluminum, plastic or other rigid materials.

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СA crossover uses a car's monocoque/unibody platform construction while forgoing the body on frame construction in use on most SUVs. The crossover combines, in highly variable degrees, the design features such as tall interior packaging, high H–point seating, high ground–clearance, or all–wheel–drive

2009 Dodge Journey, CUV

Crossover is a marketing term for a vehicle that derives from a car platform

while borrowing features from a Sport Utility Vehicle (SUV).

иeconomy. Crossovers typically are designed for only light off–road capability, if any at all.

capability of the SUV—with design features from an automobile such as

article indicatedбthat «many consumers can't tell the difference between an SUV and a crossover». A January, 2008 Wall Street Journal article called the CUVs, « wagons that look like sport utility vehicles but ride like cars». To avoid referring to their vehicles as station wagons, some nameplates will instead call them crossovers.

independent rear suspension, car–like handling, interior roominess and fuel

The term crossover began as a marketing term, and a 2008 CNN Money

While the segmentАhas notable historical antecedents, it had come into strong visibility in the US by 2006,Дwhen crossover sales «made up more than 50% of the overall SUV market». Sales in the crossover market segment increased in 2007 by 16%. Notably in the US, the crossover segment is one of the few segments of the light truck market where import brands lead domestic brands, and the segment has strong appeal to aging baby boomers.

Minivan И

A minivan, multi–purpose vehicle (abbreviated MPV), people–carrier, people–mover or multi–utility vehicle (shortened MUV) is a type of automobile similar in shape to a van that is designed for personal use. Minivans are taller than a sedan, hatchback or a station wagon, and are designed for maximum interior room.

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