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Text 30. Body Language

(1)Body language is a broad term for forms of communication using body movements or gestures instead of, or in addition to, sounds, verbal language, or other forms of communication. It forms part of the category of paralanguage, which describes all forms of human communication that are not verbal language.

Paralanguage (параязык (передача информации за счет определенной манеры говорить (напр., при помощи темпа речи, тембра и громкости голоса, тона, его модуляции и др., а также за счет таких невербальных средств, как жесты, мимика и т. п.))), including body language, has been extensively studied in social psychology. In everyday speech and popular psychology, the term is most often applied to body language that is considered involuntary, even though the distinction between voluntary and involuntary body language is often controversial. For example, a smile may be produced either consciously or unconsciously.

(2)Voluntary body language refers to movement, gestures and poses intentionally made by a person (i.e., conscious smiling, hand movements and imitation). It can apply to many types of soundless communication. Generally, movement made with full or partial intention and an understanding of what it communicates can be considered voluntary.

Involuntary body language quite often takes the form of facial expression, and has therefore been suggested as a means to identify the emotions of a person with whom one is communicating.

(3)The relation of body language to animal communication has often been discussed. Human paralanguage may represent a continuation of forms of communication that our non-linguistic ancestors already used, or it may be that it has been changed by co-existing with language. Body language is a product of both genetic and environmental influences. Blind children will smile and laugh even though they have never seen a smile. Iraneus Eibl-Eibesfeldt claimed that a number of basic elements of body language were universal across cultures and must therefore be fixed action patterns under instinctive control.

(4)Some forms of human body language show continuities with communicative gestures of other apes, though often with changes in meaning. More refined gestures, which vary between cultures (for example the gestures to indicate «yes» and «no»), must be learned or modified through learning, usually by unconscious observation of the environment.

Body language is important in one-on-one communications, and

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may be even more important in group communications. In group situations, often only one person at a time is speaking, while non-verbal communication is coming from each individual in the group. The larger the group, the more impact body language may have.

1. Определите основную идею текста.

ANonverbal elements in speech that may affect the meaning of an utterance are very important in communication.

BBody language forms part of the category of paralanguage.

CBody language refers to movement, gestures and poses.

DThe relation of body language to animal communication has often been discussed.

2.Определите, какое утверждение соответствует содержанию текста.

AThe distinction between voluntary and involuntary body language is obvious.

BBody language is a product of both genetic and environmental in-

fluences.

CBody language is not so important in group communications.

DThe reaction of body language to animal communication has often been discussed.

3.Ответьте на вопрос.

Why will blind children smile and laugh even though they have never seen a smile?

4.Укажите, в какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) содержится ответ на вопрос.

What science deals with the forms of communication?

5.Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея.

Emotions of a person with whom you are communicating are easily identified by his facial expression.

6.Определите, является ли утверждение: «Some gestures should be learned by unconscious observation of the environment» ложным / в тек-

стенетинформации/истинным.

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7. Какая из предложенных ниже моделей больше подходит для описания следующей мысли: Body language is important in one-on- one communications, and may be even more important in group communications.

А The language of the article is…

B There are a lot of special terms in the text, for example… C We can make a conclusion that…

D Finally, the author suggests…

8. Какое из данных ниже предложений можно описать с помощью следующей модели аннотирования: The author underlines that…

А More refined gestures, which vary between cultures (for example the gestures to indicate «yes» and «no»), must be learned or modified through learning, usually by unconscious observation of the environment.

B Paralanguage, including body language, has been extensively studied in social psychology.

C Generally, movement made with full or partial intention and an understanding of what it communicates can be considered voluntary.

D It forms part of the category of paralanguage, which describes all forms of human communication that are not verbal language.

Text 31. Difference between Animals and Humans

(1)If you pick up a starving dog and make him prosperous, he will not bite you. This is the principal difference between a dog and a man.

The term Animal as described in the dictionary means a living organism other than humans which feeds and usually has sense organs and a nervous system and can move. Animals include a vast majority of species. Humans belong to Homo Sapiens and are bipedal species. This means that the humans walk around using their two rear limbs.

(2)Animals would normally only include multi cells and complex organisms. Organisms like the bacteria will not be included in the animal kingdom. In most animals the dietary habits are very limited which means that they would either be vegetarians or non-vegetarians. The Humans on the other hand are omnivorous which means that they are able to consume both vegetarian and non-vegetarian foods.

Animals cannot talk or communicate with each other. In some species that the skills have been found these are very basic and undeveloped. Humans on the other hand are the only known species with highly developed communication skills.

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Animals merely feed to survive and reproduce. They have not developed any skills that go beyond their survival needs. The Humans are known for their curiosity to understand and to try and influence and change their environment. It is this curiosity in the Humans that has lead to the development of advanced tools, technology and science. The human behavior is much different from the animals as we have set purposes in life that go beyond the survival needs of day today.

(3)The Humans are highly social beings and live in large colonies. The Humans are the only known species that has the ability to domesticate animals and engage in agriculture. With the invention of advanced techniques and technology the Humans have been able to colonize all the continents. Through this colonization the humans have infringed on the land where these animals once survived and created a problem of existence for them.

(4)Summary

1.Animals may cover a lot of species whereas Humans belong to Homo Sapiens.

2.Most animals walk on all four legs or crawl (ползать) whereas Humans are bipeds (двуногие).

3.Animals tend to be either herbivorous (травоядный) or carnivorous (плотоядный) and stick to their diets whereas the Humans are omnivorous (всеядный).

4.Animals are unable to communicate like Humans do.

5.Animals are endangered (находящийся под угрозой исчезновения (о виде)) due to the Human influence on their environment.

6.Whereas Animals simply survive in their environment, Humans have developed technology & science to change their environment.

1.Ответьте на вопрос.

What is the motive power of Human evolution?

2.Укажите, в какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) содержится ответ на вопрос.

What helped the Humans to colonize the continents?

3.Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следующая идея.

The Humans set goals in their lives which go beyond the physiological needs.

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4. Определите основную идею текста.

A The Humans can talk or communicate with each other unlike ani-

mals.

BAnimals merely feed to survive and reproduce.

CAnimals would either be vegetarians or non-vegetarians.

DThe Humans are able to influence and change their environment.

5.Определите, какое утверждение соответствует содержанию текста.

AMost animals walk or crawl.

BAnimals belong to bipedal species.

CBacteria are not included in the animal kingdom.

DThe human behavior has much in common with the animals.

6.Определите, является ли утверждение: «The humans are hotblooded while animals are cold-blooded. » ложным / в тексте нет инфор-

мации/истинным.

7. Какая из предложенных ниже моделей больше подходит для описания следующей мысли: Animals may cover a lot of species whereas Humans belong to Homo Sapiens.

А The author warns that… B The author points out that…

C The author concerned with…

D The author provides much information on…

8. Какое из данных ниже предложений можно описать с помощью следующей модели аннотирования: The author points out the main difference between Animals and Humans:

А Most animals walk on all four legs or crawl whereas Humans are bipeds.

B The Humans are highly social beings and live in large colonies. C Animals cannot talk or communicate with each other.

D Animals include a vast majority of species.

Text 32. An American Invention

(1) The cacao tree (Theobroma cacao) is a native of Central and South America. Today, it is cultivated around the equator, and can be found in the Caribbean, Africa, South-East Asia, and even in the South Pa-

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cific Islands of Samoa and New Guinea.

There are three main varieties of cacao trees. The most common is Forastero, which accounts for nearly 90% of the world's production of cacao beans. Rarest and most prized are the beans of the Criollo variety. Their aroma and delicacy make them sought after by the world's best chocolate makers. Finally, there is the Trinitario variety of cacao, which is a cross between Criollo and Forastero.

(2)The spread of the cacao tree started during the age of Colonialism, as did the spread of cacao beans, and of chocolate itself. Christopher Columbus was the first European to come in contact with cacao. On August 15, 1502, on his fourth and last voyage to the Americas, Columbus and his crew encountered a large dugout canoe near an island off the coast of what is now Honduras. The canoe was the largest native vessel the Spaniards had seen. It was "as long as a galley," and was filled with local goods for trade – including cacao beans. Columbus had his crew seize the vessel and its goods, and retained its skipper as his guide.

Later, Columbus' son Ferdinand wrote about the encounter. He was struck by how much value the Native Americans placed on cacao beans, saying:

"They seemed to hold these almonds [referring to the cacao beans] at a great price; for when they were brought on board ship together with their goods, I observed that when any of these almonds fell, they all stooped to pick it up, as if an eye had fallen."

What Ferdinand and the other members of Columbus' crew didn't know at the time was that cocoa beans were the local currency. In fact, in some parts of Central America, cacao beans were used as currency as recently as the last century.

While it is likely that Columbus brought the cacao beans he seized back to Europe, their potential value was initially overlooked by the Spanish King and his court. Twenty years later, however, Spanish conquistador Hernando Cortez is said to have brought back three chests full of cacao beans. This time the beans were recognized as one treasure among the many stolen from the conquered Aztecs.

(3)By the beginning of the sixteenth century, the Aztecs had an advanced and powerful civilization located in what is now central Mexico. Many people believe that the Aztecs first developed chocolate. However, chocolate goes back much farther. The ancient Maya, who inhabited what is now parts of southern Mexico and Central America, certainly consumed chocolate. In fact, the word "cacao" is Mayan: as early as 500 A.D., the

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Mayans were writing about cacao on their pottery. Some think chocolate may be even older, dating back to the Olmec civilization that preceded the Maya.

The chocolate of these Mesoamerican civilizations was consumed as a bitter-tasting drink made of ground cacao beans mixed with a variety of local ingredients. An officer serving with Cortez observed Motecuhzoma, the ruler of the Aztecs, drinking fifty flagons of chocolate a day. The frothy beverage, which was sometimes made with water, and sometimes with wine, could be seasoned with vanilla, pimiento, and chili pepper. It was thought to cure diarrhea and dysentery, and was believed to be an aphrodisiac. Cortez is said to have tried the beverage, but found it too bitter. He did, however, write to King Carlos I of Spain, calling "xocoatl" a "drink that builds up resistance and fights fatigue."

(4) For many Europeans, drinking chocolate (especially before it was sweetened) was an acquired taste. Spanish missionary Jose de Acosta, who lived in Peru in the late 1500s, described it this way: "Loathsome to such as are not acquainted with it, having a scum or froth that is very unpleasant to taste. Yet it is a drink very much esteemed among the Indians, where with they feast noble men who pass through their country. The Spaniards, both men and women, that are accustomed to the country, are very greedy of this Chocolate. They say they make diverse sorts of it, some hot, some cold, and some temperate, and put therein much of that 'chili'; yea, they make paste thereof, the which they say is good for the stomach and against the catarrh."

Soon chocolate would make its way across the Atlantic – first to Spain, and then to the rest of Europe. The first official shipment was made in 1585 from Veracruz to Seville.

1.Продолжите предложение: According to the passage, the “an American invention” is (a) …

A chocolate tree B cacao bean

C chocolate beverage D chocolate

2.Определите, какое утверждение соответствует содержанию текста.

A Christopher Columbus was the first to come in contact with cacao. B The Aztecs first developed chocolate.

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CThe cacao beans of the Criollo variety are highly appreciated by the world's best chocolate makers.

DThe spread of the cacao tree started during the age of Colonialism from Spain to America.

3.Определите, какое утверждение не соответствует содержанию текста.

AForastero is a widespread cacao tree.

BCacao beans were seized by Christopher Columbus.

CCacao beans are used as currency.

DThe word "cacao" is Mayan.

4.Ответьте на вопрос.

What did the King of Spain write about a cacao beverage?

5.Укажите, в какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) содержится ответ на вопрос.

What drink was used to treat dysentery?

6.Укажите, какой части текста (1, 2, 3, 4) соответствует следую-

щая идея.

In the 16th century, cacao beans were of great importance in some parts of Central America.

7.Определите, является ли утверждение: «The Spaniards adore chocolate.»ложным / втекстенетинформации/истинным.

8.Дополните перевод по памяти.

9. Какая из предложенных ниже моделей больше подходит для описания следующей мысли: The first official shipment was made in 1585 from Veracruz to Seville.

А A bit later the author stresses…

B Then the author devotes some attention to… C The author stipulates that…

D The author starts by telling the reader about…

10. Какое из данных ниже предложений можно описать с помощью следующей модели аннотирования: The author gives brief description of…

А By the beginning of the sixteenth century, the Aztecs had an advanced and powerful civilization located in what is now central Mexico.

B There are three main varieties of cacao trees.

C Many people believe that the Aztecs first developed chocolate.

D The cacao tree (Theobroma cacao) is a native of Central and South America.

Text 33. Secrets of the Brain: the Mystery of Memory

(1)Even though science continues to give us ever increasing insights into what memory is much of it remains a mystery. Researchers consider memory a process, and when you remember you are actually reconstructing the event from bits of information stored in various parts of the brain. But the mystery is, what initiates the reconstruction? Is it, as some suggest, directed from outside the physical body, from the energy body? That remains to be seen.

(2)The Location of Memory. In the past, it was thought that all memory was in the brain. However, Gazzaniga (1988) reports that memory occurs throughout the nervous system. So every thought you have is “felt” throughout

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your entire body because the receptors for the chemicals in your brain are found on the surfaces of cells throughout your body. Thus when the chemicals are activated in the brain, the message is communicated to every part of your body that allows cells to communicate by remote travel using blood and cerebrospinal fluid [спинно-мозговаяжидкость].

(3)Stress Erodes Memory. Excessive stress and obesity produce an over-production of a complex set of stress hormones that damage and destroy neurons in the brain’s region critical to learning and memory. One really good way to burn off excess stress hormones is through exercise. So for those experiencing particularly high stress levels exercise is not only beneficial, it is necessary.

(4)What are the Characteristics of Memory? Sensory – we remember things that involve our five senses. So, the more senses that get activate, the easier it willbe torecall.

Intensity – when something is more intensely funny, sexual, absurd, etc. it tends tostand out in ourmemories.

Outstanding – things that are dull and unoriginal are more difficult to remember because there is nothing to distinguish them from all the other memories.

Emotional – when something happens that has high emotional content – positive or negative – we tend to remember it more easily.

Survival – anything we perceive as important to survival we will remember more easily. It’s not just physical survival. Survival can include emotional survival, psychological survival and financial survival.

Personal importance – we naturally remember things that interest us and that have some personal importance.

Repetition – the more often we recall information, the better we get at recalling on demand.

First and last – the brain most easily recalls things from the beginning and the ending of any session or lecture.

(5)What are the Keys to Memory? Pay attention – often times the biggest problem is that people’s minds are not focused in the moment. Instead, theyare thinkingabout somethingin thepast of future.

Visualization – create a visual in your mind because the brain thinks in pictures and concepts,notparagraphs.

Association – find something to connect the information to…similar to word association. Ask, “What does this remind me of?”

Imagination – getcreative when visualizing or makingassociations.

(6)Why do we forget? It could be that we never stored the information

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