- •1. The Aim and Object of discipline Lexicology
- •Lexicology and linking branches of Linguistics.
- •The Research Methods of Lexicology.
- •Immediate Constituents Analysis
- •The Main Lexical Units of the English language
- •Morphological Structure of the English words.
- •Word-building: Affixation. Suffixation and its classification.
- •Word-building: Affixation. Prefixation and its classification.
- •Word-building: Conversion and its types.
- •Abbreviations: extra-linguistic and linguistic causes. Lexical abbreviations.
- •Abbreviations: The Origin of the word. Initial abbreviations.
- •Word-building: Sound and Stress interchange.
- •Word-building: Reduplication, Back formation.
- •Word-building: Blends.
- •Semasiology. Polysemantic English words.
- •17.Semantic Structure of English words.
- •18.The Main Semantic Aspects of Compounds.
- •19.Synonyms. Different Types of Synonyms.
- •20.Antonyms. Classification of Antonyms.
- •21.Etymology of English Words. Native and Borrowings.
- •22.Modern Borrowings in the English Language.
- •23.Classification of Borrowings.
- •Classification of Borrowings.
- •24.Homonyms. Classification of Homonyms
- •25.Euphemisms and its main characteristics
- •26.Neologisms and their different semantic groups
- •27.Phraseological Units and Idioms. Principles of Classification
- •28. Different Classifications of Phraseological Units
- •29. The British and American variants of the English.
- •30. Formal and Informal Styles of Speech
- •Vocabulary
- •The main functions of the phoneme.
- •The syllabic structure of English words.
- •Functional aspect of word stress.
- •Differences in the position of stress in English, Kazakh and Russian.
- •9.The main types of syllables.
- •10.Components of intonation.
- •Grammar as a science. Its aim and objects.
- •The Noun and its characteristic features as a part of speech.
- •The verb and its grammatical categories
- •The category of Voice.
- •The Pronoun. Classification of Pronouns.
- •The Adjective. Degrees of Comparison.
- •Two parts of grammar: Morphology and Syntax.
- •Word and morpheme as basic notions of Morphology.
- •The Numeral. Classification of Numerals.
- •The Article. Difficulties of the study of articles.
- •14. The system of grammatical tenses in Modern English
- •16. The secondary parts of the sentence.
- •18. The Adverb. Classification of Adverbs.
- •Compound and Complex sentences.
- •20. Main verbs and auxiliary verbs.
25.Euphemisms and its main characteristics
The term euphemism refers to polite, indirect expressions which replace words and phrases considered harsh and impolite or which suggest something unpleasant.
Euphemism is an idiomatic expression which loses its literal meanings and refers to something else in order to hide its unpleasantness. For example, “kick the bucket” is a euphemism that describes the death of a person. In addition, many organizations use the term “downsizing” for the distressing act of “firing” its employees. Euphemism depends largely on the social context of the speakers and writers where they feel the need to replace certain words which may prove embarrassing for particular listeners or readers in a particular situation.
Euphemism masks a rude or impolite expression but conveys the concept clearly and politely. Several techniques are employed to create euphemism. It may be in the form of abbreviations e.g. B.O. (body odor), W.C. (toilet) etc. Foreign words may be used to replace an impolite expression e.g. faux (fake), or faux pas (foolish error) etc. Sometimes, they are abstractions e.g. before I go (before I die). They may also be indirect expressions replacing direct ones which may sound offensive e.g. rear-end, unmentionables etc. Using longer words or phrases can also mask unpleasant words e.g. flatulence for farting, perspiration for sweat, mentally challenged for stupid etc. Using technical terms may reduce the rudeness exhibited by words e.g. gluteus maximus. Deliberately mispronouncing an offensive word may reduce its severity e.g. darn, shoot etc.
Euphemism is frequently used in everyday life. Let us look at some common euphemism examples:
You are becoming a little thin on top (bald).
Our teacher is in the family way (pregnant).
He is always tired and emotional (drunk).
We do not hire mentally challenged (stupid) people.
He is a special child (disabled or retarded).
Function of Euphemism
Euphemism helps writers to convey those ideas which have become a social taboo and are too embarrassing to mention directly. Writers skillfully choose appropriate words to refer to and discuss a subject indirectly which otherwise are not published due to strict social censorship e.g. religious fanaticism, political theories, sexuality, death etc. Thus, euphemism is a useful tool that allows writers to write figuratively about the libelous issues.
Below are some more examples of Euphemisms
Downsizing - This is used when a company fires or lays off a larger number of employees
Friendly fire - This is used by the military when soldiers are accidentally killed by other soldiers on the same side.
Tipsy - This is a soft way to say that someone has had to much to drink.
Golden years - This is used to describe the later period of life when someone is of old age.
Gone to heaven - This is a polite way to say that someone is dead.
Enhanced interrogation - This is modern euphemism to minimize what by many people would be viewed as torture.