Маркеры

Каждому типу текста (текст-рассуждение, текст-описание) соответствует определенная последовательность подачи информации, т.е. существует принципиальная схема, по которой строится каждый конкретный текст. Знание сигнальных слов (маркеров), выполняющих функцию выделения важного, функцию связи и обеспечения общей смысловой направленности служит надежной опорой понимания и эффективным средством нахождения необходимой информации.

Маркеры, сигнализирующие о перечислении, порядке следования: one, three ..., first, second ..., next, then, finally, to begin with, eventually, subsequently, to conclude, in the end и т.д.

Маркеры, сигнализирующие о добавочной информации:

• подчеркивание сходства: in the same way, likewise, equally, similarly;

• подтверждение ранее изложенного: moreover, also, furthermore, in addition, above all, again;

• переход к новой информации: by the way, now;

• противопоставление: but, then, on the one hand, on the other hand, alternatively, rather, instead, on the contrary;

• введение неожиданной информации, которая не вытекает из предшествующей, а находится в противоречии с ней: anyway, anyhow, however, nevertheless, though, yet, in spite of, at the same time.

Маркеры, обозначающие итог изложенного или вывод, результат, который следует из предшествующей информации: as a result, consequently, in consequence», hence, to conclude, then, thus, therefore, so, so far.

Маркеры, указывающие на объяснение, толкование, изложение ран сказанного другими снопами: in other words, namely, rather, that is to say и т.д.

Маркеры, указывающие на иллюстрацию примером: for instance, for example, to illustrate.

Как правило, при наличии в предложении маркера, он переводится в первую очередь. Запомните некоторые из них:

again кроме того; к тому же

also к тому же

alternatively с другой стороны

consequently следовательно; поэтому; в результате

for instance; for example например

further далее; затем

furthermore к тому же

however однако

now теперь; в то время

therefore поэтому; следовательно

thus итак; таким образом

on the one hand с одной стороны

on the other hand с другой стороны

conversely наоборот

3. Прочитайте следующий текст. Выделите маркеры и скажите, о чем они сигнализируют.

Why Assembly Language?

Many people write all of their computer programs in one of the so-called "high-level languages'', particularly BASIC. BASIC is easy to learn, easy to use, and fast enough for most computing tasks. That being the case, why would anyone want to use any other language? One reason is that BASIC, like human languages, is not well-suited to everything Some tasks are much easier in other languages. Special computing tasks like graphics, music, or word processing are often easier in special languages. Furthermore, BASIC is quite slow. The term slow may surprise the beginner, since short programs seem to run instantaneously. However, problems occur in the following situations:

1. When large amounts of data are involved. You will notice how slow BASIC is when a program must, for example, sort a long list of names and addresses or accounts Similarly, BASIC will be quite slow when a program must search through a 50-page report or keep inventory records on thousands of items.

2. When graphics is involved. If a program is drawing a picture on the Screen, it must work quickly or the delay will be intolerable. If objects in the picture are supposed to move, the program must be fast enough to make the motion look natural. This is particularly difficult when the picture contains many objects (such as space ships, base stations, and alien invaders), all of which are moving in different directions.

3. When a lot of decisions or "thinking" is required. This is often necessary in complex games like checkers or chess. The program has to try many possibilities and docile on a reasonable move. Obviously, the more possibilities there are and the more analysis required, the longer it will take the computer to move.

Why is BASIC slow? In the first place, the computer actually translates each BASIC statement into simple internal commands (so-called machine

or assembly language). It does this every time it runs the BASIC program. Thus, much of the computer's time is spent translating the program, not running it.

There are versions of BASIC called compilers that perform the translation once and then save the translated version. However, BASIC would still be slow because of its mechanical nature. It is really like an automobile with an automatic transmission; no amount of coaxing can ever get you the performance or fuel economy that a skilful driver can achieve with a manual transmission. The human being is simply a more flexible, more skilful, and smarter operator than is the automatic transmission or the BASIC interpreter or compiler.

Assembly language is the computer equivalent of a manual transmission. It gives the programmer greater control over the computer at the cost of more work, more detail, and less convenience. Like an automatic transmission, BASIC is good enough most of the time for most programmers. But for those who must get maximum performance from their computers, assembly language is essential. You will find that most complex games, graphics programs, and large business programs are written at least partially in assembly language.

Even if assembly language is your likely choice, you may be wondering whether you have enough background to learn assembly language programming. You do if you have done some programming of any kind. If you know BASIC or some other high-level language that's fine. If you have developed programs in an assembly language, that's even better.

Like BASIC, assembly language is a set of words that tell the computer what to do. However, the words in the assembly language instruction refer to computer components directly. It's like the difference between telling someone to walk to the mailbox and telling them precisely how to move their muscles and maneuver past obstacles. Obviously, a simple command is sufficient most of the time; only athletes or mountain climbers need the more detailed instructions.

Assembly language programs give the computer detailed commands, such as "load 32 into the AX register", "transfer the contents of the CL register into the DL register", and "store the number in the DL register into memory location 3,456". As you see, BASIC and assembly language differ in how you instruct the computer. With BASIC, you speak in generalities: with assembly language, you speak in specifics.

Although assembly language programs take more time and effort to write than BASIC programs, they also run much faster. The level of detail is the

key here. The idea is the same as an athlete who runs faster or jumps farther by watching every step of what he or she does. Precise form is essential to achieving maximum performance.

Because assembly language requires you to operate on the computer's internal components, you must understand the features and capabilities of the integrated circuits (or "chip") that holds these components, the computer's microprocessor.

Notes:

suit подходить

instantaneously мгновенно

search искать; перебирать

keep inventory records хранить записи

item пункт; статья (в описи)

delay задержка

intolerable невыносимый

alien invaders захватчики

statement утверждение; оператор

flexible гибкий

smart умный; интеллектуальный

convenience удобство

background основа

obstacle препятствие

generality общность

specific конкретность

В случае затруднений выполните упражнение №1 в Unit 4.

Заполните таблицу:

	BASIC	Assembly language
advantages
disadvantages

А у Вас есть опыт работы с BASIC/Assembly language? Поделитесь Вашим опытом. Ваше мнение об этих языках программирования.

4. Прочитайте текст. А Вы хорошо знаете Structured Programming?