Time of change

The calm and prosperous 1950s ended with the victory of John F. Kennedy in presidential elections. Kennedy, a young Democrat, whose vitality and style seemed to symbolize the era, at his 43 was the youngest man ever to win the presidency. He announced the New Frontier policy to Americans, speaking about new times and ideas. "Ask not what your country can do for you – ask what you can do for your country", said Kennedy in his inaugural address.

Though Kennedy had promised much in his program, he didn't manage to do it – on November 22, 1963, he was assassinated in the open car during a visit to Dallas, Texas. Among Kennedy's most important projects were funding of a space program and founding of the Peace Corps – a non-profit organization established to send volunteers overseas to help developing countries.

For many Americans assassination of Kennedy became a milestone, marking the beginning of a new era, full of struggle, social unrest and changes.

Cold War – 2

In the 1960s and 1970s, the Cold War tension grew in America and abroad. In the Kennedy years one of the battlefields became Cuba, which became a pro-communist country in 1959. After the Cuban Revolution American property on the island was nationalized.

Americans in response squeezed Cuba in economic blockade, broke with it diplomatic relations and started to plan the invasion – Cuban exiles would seize power in the country and the Cuban people would rise against the Castro government.

In reality the Cuban people did not rise against Castro and most invaders were captured within two days.

Kennedy, who approved this plan after President Eisenhower had left the office, accepted the responsibility for the defeat. However, the next year the situation changed – Castro and the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev agreed to install missiles and nuclear bombs on Cuba. Kennedy demanded publicly that the Soviets remove the weapons. Never before had the world been so close to the nuclear war. Finally, after several days of tension, the Soviets backed down asking Washington never to pledge to attack Cuba again.

This missile crisis marked a turning point in the USA-Soviet relations – both sides saw the need to defuse tension. In 1962, the USA, the Soviet Union and Great Britain signed a Limited Test Ban Treaty prohibiting nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere.

The War in Vietnam and Watergate

After the assassination of John F. Kennedy, Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson became president of the United States. As a president, Johnson inherited a lot of problems; one of the worst ones appeared to be the war in Vietnam. The war was much inspired by the belief that America had the right to influence the internal affairs of other countries, this assertion came from the growing international power of the USA after World War II. Finally, it led to the longest war in American history – the Vietnam War (1965-1975).

The Vietnam War was essentially a civil war, started by Ho Chi Min, a Vietnamese Communist, who wanted the liberation of his nation from French colonial rule. Despite the help of the USA the French were driven out of the country in 1954, and the country was divided into two parts with communists controlling its northern part.

The USA entered the war in early 1965, beginning air raids on North Vietnam and on Communist-controlled areas in the South; by 1966, there were 190,000 US troops in South Vietnam. North Vietnam, meanwhile, was receiving armaments and technical assistance from the Soviet Union and other Communist countries. Despite massive US military aid and heavy bombing, the growing US troop commitment (which reached nearly 550,000 in 1969) could not subdue Ho Chi Min and North Vietnamese forces.

Under the next president, Richard Nixon, America intensified the bombing of North Vietnam thus expanding the war. Widening the Vietnam War inspired anti-war fever in America, and massive anti-war demonstrations spread across the country. In many cases demonstrators did not find support of the authorities – at Kent State University in Ohio, for example, National Guard troops shot and killed four student demonstrators.

Only in 1973, the USA and North Vietnam started to negotiate troop withdrawals. The peace treaty ended a shameful battle in which over 58,000 Americans were killed and more than 300,000 wounded. America suffered its first serious defeat in a war.

But Vietnam War was not the only problem which Richard Nixon faced when he became a president in 1969 – the country's economy was in bad state, inflation progressed as a result of huge war spending and growing social programs. After the peace settlement with North Vietnam was announced, and Americans began reeling from the Vietnam disaster, the nation was rocked by a huge political scandal, which led to Nixon's resignation.

It was discovered that the Nixon administration ordered secret placement of listening devices in the Democratic Party's headquarters in the Watergate, a hotel/apartment/office building in Washington, D.C. Investigation of the case showed that Nixon's administration illegally wiretapped the phones of their opponents, and on August 8, 1974, Nixon resigned from the office. He became the first, and the only USA president to quit his job.

Cultural Focus: Naming Political Scandals

Political scandal that led to the resignation of President Nixon got the name "Watergate" derived from the Watergate Complex where the scandal started. Since the Watergate scandal the media have started to add suffix – gate to one of the key words used to describe a political scandal.

Today among the words with -gate suffix we can find the names of such political scandals as Monicagate (other variants: Sexgate or Zippergate) – a scandal named after Monica Lewinsky who had "inappropriate" relationship with President Clinton, Irangate or Contragate – a scandal caused by the selling Americans weapons to Iran and the Contra rebels in Nicaragua, Coingate – the mishandling of Ohio government funds entrusted to republican operatives who were rare coin dealers, Camillagate – tape of telephone conversation between Charles, Prince of Wales and Mrs Camilla Parker-Bowless in 1992, and many, many others.