Integration

The flight will be boarding at Gate 17 in about fifteen minutes,' the girl added with a smile³⁵ - «Приблизно за п'ятнадцять хвилин на цей рейс буде посадка біля виходу номер 17», — посміхаючись, додала дівчина.

Replacement

ШЬ Integration is the opposite of partitioning, it implies combining two or (seldom) more source sentences into one target sentence.

•* Replacement is any change in the target text at the morphologi­cal, lexical and syntactic levels of the language when the elements of certain source paradigms are replaced by different elements of target paradigms³⁶.

Generally, integration is a translation device wholly depending on stylistic peculiarities and communication intent of the text being trans­lated. In oral translation, however, integration may be a text compression tool (see below), when an interpreter (consecutive or simultaneous) is to reduce the exuberant elements of the source text to keep in pace with the speaker.

An example will do to illustrate the idea of integration:

Олена Філіп'єва любить усі свої ролі. Якщо якусь із них довго не танцює - починає сумувати.

Olena Filip'eva loves all her roles and even misses them should too much time pass without performing them.

Transposition

•► Transposition is a peculiar variety of inner partitioning in trans­lation meaning a change in the order of the target sentence syntactic elements (Subject, Predicate, Object, etc.) as compared with that of the source sentence dictated either by peculiarities of the target lan­guage syntax or by the communication intent.

An example will suffice to illustrate the idea of transposition.

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It seems worth to discuss again the example from our previous lec­ture on language paradigms. Let us consider sentences in English and in Ukrainian: He used to come to Italy each spring and Зазвичай він приїздив до Італії кожної весни.

The following paradigms were used to form these sentences and the following paradigm elements were activated in syntagmas during their formation (viz. Table below).

Elements Activated in the Sentence English Ukrainian

he він

used, come приїздив

Past Indef. минулий час

to none

Names of Paradigms Used to Form the Sentences

Personal Pronouns Paradigm Verbs Paradigm Verb Tense Paradigm Particles Paradigm

I³⁵ Archer J. Honour Among Thieves. - London: Harper Collins, 1994. ³⁶ Our definition of replacements somewhat differs from the viewpoints of other scholars the reason being the specific target audience of this Manual. The Manual is targeted to the students of non-linguistic disciplines with only basic linguistic awareness that is why we try to make our explanations simple and practical rather than present a detailed linguistic classification of translation pa-

Prepositions Paradigm to do

Noun Paradigm Italy, spring Італія, весна

Adjectives Paradigm each кожний

Adverbs Paradigm none зазвичай

Noun Cases Paradigm Common Case pod. відм.

Adjective Cases Paradigm none pod. відм.

Comparing the paradigm sets used to form the above English and Ukrainian sentences and paradigm elements activated in the syntagmas of these sentences one may easily spot numerous replacements.

Of interest for student translators are changes observed in Complex Sentences where transposition of the Subjects is combined with their mutual replacement. To prove the statement, let us consider the follow­ing example:

No sooner did he start his speech than the President was interrupted. -He встиг президент розпочати промову, як його перервали.

The replacements are necessary because English and Ukrainian pos­sess different language systems. It goes without saying that this fact is very important for translation and explains many translation problems.

Thus, replacement is a universal and widely used translation device. One may even say that replacements in that or another form are observed in any translation from English into Ukrainian and even more so — from Ukrainian into English.

The following basic types of replacements are observed in English-Ukrainian translation:

1. Replacement of Noun Number and Verb Tense and Voice Para­digms, e. g. replacing Singular Form by Plural and vice versa; re­placement of Active Voice by Passive; replacement of Future by Pre­sent, Past by Present, etc.

2. Replacement of Parts of Speech (the most common is replacing Ukrainian Nouns by English Verbs when translating into English /see in more detail below/; common enough is the replacement of English 'Nomina agentis' /drinker, sleeper, etc./ by Ukrainian Verbs).

3. Replacement in translation of a negative statement by an affirmative

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one is an efficient device called antonymous translation. It is a means of text compression extensively used in interpretation and discussed in more detail elsewhere in this Manual (viz. Lecture 15 Interpreta­tion: Professional Skills and Training)

Replacements of all kinds are so common in English-Ukrainian translation that even a beginner is sure to use this device more than once, so to save space we shall give examples in the attached exercises.

Addition

•► Addition in translation is a device intended for the compensa­tion of structural elements implicitly present in the source text or paradigm forms missing in the target language

Additions in translation from English into Ukrainian stem from the differences in the syntactic and semantic structure of these languages. In English, being an analytical language the syntactic and semantic relations are often implicitly expressed through order of syntactic elements and context environment whereas in predominantly synthetic Ukrainian these relations are explicit (expressed in relevant words). When translat­ing from English into Ukrainian a translator is to visualize the implicit objects and relations through additions. So-called 'noun clusters' fre­quently encountered in newspaper language are especially rich in 'hid­den' syntactic and semantic information to be visualized by addition in translation:

Green Party federal election money - гроші Партії зелених, призначені на вибори на федеральному рівні

fuel tax protests - протести, пов'язані з підвищенням податку на

паливо

peer-bonded goods - товари, розраховані на споживання певною

віковою групою

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Omission

Ш QUESTIONS

What are the basic translation devices?

What is partitioning and integration? Define them and give exam­ples. Describe transposition as a variety of inner partitioning What is replacement? Define it. What are the basic types of replace­ments in practical translation? Give examples. What is addition? Give definition and examples. What is omission? Give examples of Ukrainian-English translation.

4.

5.

EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Compare the English text and its translation into Ukrainian. Com­ment on translation devices used.

ШЬ Omission is reduction of the elements of the source text consid­ered redundant from the viewpoint of the target language structural patterns and stylistics

Omission is the opposite of addition - to understand it consider the literal translation into English of the above noun clusters from their Ukrainian translation and compare these translations with the original English text.

Green Party federal election money - гроші Партії зелених, призначені на вибори на федеральному рівні - Green Party money in­tended for the elections at the federal level

fuel tax protests - протести, пов'язані з підвищенням податку на паливо -protests related to the increase of the fuel tax

peer-bonded goods - товари, розраховані на споживання певною віковою групою — goods designed for use by certain age groups

Furthermore, the meaning of their constituents being the same, a number of expressions do not require translation into Ukrainian in full, e.g., null and void - недійсний.

So, as one can see, proper omissions are important and necessary translation devices rather than translator's faults as some still tend to be­lieve.

Thus, basic translation devices discussed in this lecture are, indeed, the only 'tool kit' available to a translator, however, a big question re­mains unanswered: Where and when to use that or another device? A complete answer is hardly possible, but we shall try, at least, to give some recommendations in the lectures that follow.

WHY THE BEST? The New York Times Magazine, June 1, 1999

There may be less agree­ment than ever about what it is. But the concept has become an essential tool. The Best has be­come a search engine. By FRANK RICH

Some nine decades later, the historian Peter N. Stearns disinterred the old Times essay and, while finding it not with­out insight, noted the con­spicuous omission of «an amazing number of develop­ments that we now consider to have been crucial in the 19th century.» Among the missing were the abolition of slavery, the artistic revolution of Im-

^ЧОМУ НАЙКРАЩЕ? «Нью-Йорк Тайме Мегезин», 1 червня 1999 p. Автор: Френк Річ

Може, зараз існує більше роз­біжностей щодо тлумачення слова «найкращий», ніж їх було коли-небудь до цього, але концепція «найкращого» стала суттєвим засо­бом своєрідної селекції.

Історик Пітер Стернз розко­пав у старих номерах «Тайме» есе, яке побачило світ приблизно де­в'яносто років тому і, зауважив, що йому не бракує глибини. Він звернув увагу на відсутність у есе згадки про «дивовижну кількість подій і фактів, які ми зараз вважа­ємо важливими для XIX століття». Пройшли непоміченими: пова­лення рабства, мистецька револю­ція імпресіоністів і майже все, що

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стосується Азії. А сьогодні «Тайме» розкопує завали на го­рищі історії і перетрушує минуле тисячоліття у пошуках Найкращо­го. Ні, не десятка кращих і не сотні найліпших, а саме Найкращого.

Якщо хтось помітить у цих пошуках абсурдистську нотку, ти­пову для XX сторіччя, то це так і було заплановано. У 1999 році сам цей вираз «найкращий» визначає словесну бійку або, якщо вислови­тись більш конструктивно, прово­кує дебати.

pressionism and virtually the entirety of Asia.

Now The Times is upping the ante exponentially and ran­sacking an entire millennium in search of the Best. Not the 10 best, or the 100 best, but the Best. If you detect a distinctly 20th-century absurdist grace note in this endeavor, it's inten­tional. In 1999, the very term «the Best» amounts to fighting words-or, to put it more con­structively, a provocation to debate.

Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian, using the suggested, and, if needed, other devices:

a)partitioning:

Similar artifacts have been found at sites throughout North and South America, indicating that life was probably well established in much of the Western Hemisphere by some time prior to 10,000 B.C. One result of these restrictions was to reduce the appeal of nativists organizations³⁷

d) replacement:

1. Everyone was talking but stopped the moment she entered the room. 2. The establishment of the United Nations Office in November 1992 followed the signing in New York a host agreement between Ukraine's Foreign Minister and the United Nations Secretary-General. 3. I hear that you have been promoted. Congratulations! 4.Please be quiet. You re continually interrupting! 5.Pay no attention to him. He is just being naughty. 6.When he was rich, he used to stay in this hotel. 7. Scien­tists are on the point of making a vital breakthrough. No sooner did the President start his speech than he was interrupted. 8.Principal hereby appoints Agent as its non-exclusive service provider. 9.This Agreement

may not be amended or supplemented except by written agreement signed by both parties hereto. lO.The terms used hereunder shall have the following meaning. 11. Each Party may, within 20 days after receiving the minutes, suggest amendments thereto.

e) addition:

Publications on Foreign Policy; the United Nations; Ministry of Health

. J) omission:

a) The Court of Justice; null and void; rejected and omitted; as far back as; as early as; he is head and shoulders above his comrades; prim and proper; power to execute and perform the duties and responsibili­ ties; continue in full force and effect; foreign policy problem; electoral base; political scientist;

b) Статут Організації Об'єднаних Націй; Члени Організації Об'єднаних Націй; юристи з визнаним авторитетом у галузі міжнародного права; постійна Палата Третейського Суду; взяти на себе обов'язки; подати заяву про відставку; у порядку спрощеного судочинства; у випадку рівності голосів суддів голос старшого за віком дає перевагу; термін повноважень п'яти суддів закінчується через три роки.

g) antonymous translation:

Valid with diploma only. Keep off the grass. Take it easy. Take it or leave it. She was not like a bird. Staff only. It won't be long before the help arrives. It wasn't until 1983 that Connor could afford a holiday abroad. It would take these first North Americans thousands of years more to work their way through the openings in great glaciers south to what is now the United States. The armed forces shall not be used save in the common interests.

Ex. 3. Translate into Ukrainian, making necessary transformations.

Primaries; academia; turnout (at the polls); caucus; Ministry of Health; the Exchequer; to investigate; to accommodate; airborne; breeze; refinery; publicist; body of independent judges.

Nativist organizations - організації «американців за походженням».

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Ex. 4. Translate into Ukrainian. Comment on translation devices used.

DICK WHITTINGTON AND HIS CAT

Tales of cats that bring gpod fortune to their owners can be found in cultures throughout the world. One of the most famous is the English legend of Dick Whittington, a poor orphan in the late 1300s, whose only possession was a cat. Dick worked in a rich traders house, but was ill- treated and ran away. A peal of bells tells him to return and he does so to find that his cat has been sold for a great fortune to a Moorish ruler who І^ф is plagued by rats. ^

■a

„фґ>\

The story of Dick Whittington and his cat is a familiar one to most schoolchildren. A poor orphan comes to London and finds work in the_v kitchens of a rich merchant-trader called Fitzwarren. One day Dick earns a penny by shining a rich man's shoes ,an,d buys a cat to keep the vermin in his room at bay. Fitzwarren allows his employees to put one item on his ship that could be traded abroad,. The employee will then get all the profits. Dick had nothing^xceptW cat, and so he reluctantly gives up

f. ніг

ІД^ *

his pet.

^ _1JMT,.

«Л><Я& STORM AT SEA ^

^ о^Ц^Опе day, Fitzwarren's ship encounters a fierce storm and is blown into uncharted territory on the African Barbary coast. The Moorish king, « dining with the captain, tells him that he will pay a fortune if anyone can rid him of a plague of rats. The captain, who has seen how Dick's cat has rid the ship of vermin, gives the cat to the king. The cat immediately sets about its work and then goes to sit on the queen's lap, purring. The king is so happy that he gives the captain gold and jewels worth ten times the value of the entire ship's cargo. Dick becomes a rich man.

Lecture 11. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CHOICE OF EQUIVALENTS

This Lecture:

• outlines basic factors that influence the choice of translation equivalents, i.e. context, situation and background information;

• defines context varieties and their influence on the choice of translation equivalents;

• shows the role of cultural background in equivalent selection.

From the previous lectures and your own translation experience you know that the choice of translation equivalents depends on the context, situation and background information. This lecture presents more de­tailed information on the role these and some other important factors play in the process of translation equivalent selection.

Thus, the main factors are context, situation and background infor­mation. They are well-known, but, regrettably, their definitions by vari­ous scholars substantially differ.

To start with, let us define the context³⁸.

Ш* For the purpose of practical translation we shall call the context the length of speech (text) necessary to specify the meaning and translation of a given word.

Also for the purpose of practical translation we shall distinguish be­tween immediate and general context.

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See also: Нелюбин Л.Л. Переводческий словарь. - M., 1999.

101

•* Immediate context is a sequence of syntactically and semantically related words that determines the meaning and syntactic function of a given word and forms the basis for its translation.

Note the words 'forms the basis' in the above definition - these words are critical indeed, because immediate context is seldom sufficient for the proper choice of equivalents. Usually immediate context is lim­ited to a sentence, though in many cases a length of text shorter than a sentence is sufficient as an immediate context.

However, to get all information necessary for translation one should take into account the general context as well.

потрібна, окрім релігії, щоб вижити у час, коли нове тисячоліття летить прямо на нас; це ілюзія, що ми ще можемо зупинити годинник і знайти спосіб, навіть у цю останню мить, щоб підкорити простір і час.

Perhaps, you will agree that in the first instance the immediate con­text is all that one needs for translation whereas to translate properly the text of the second example one will need broader context and, probably, some additional background information as well. This brings us to the first conclusion:

•* The choice of translation equivalents depends both on immedi­ate and general context.

Ш* General context is the source text as a whole.

To feel the difference compare the translation of the following two examples.

After becoming involved in city politics, he was rewarded for his services to the King by being made Lord Mayor of London, serving four terms be­tween 1397 and 1420.

Він став брати активну участь у політичному житті міста, і король відзначив його заслуги перед короною, призначивши лорд-мером Лондона. На цій посаді він залишався чотири строки - з 1397 по 1420 рік.

The hope that we can still pare down our choices to a list of essentials is the other faith, besides religion, that we need to survive as the new millen­nium rushes toward us - the illusion that we can stop the clock and some­how, even at this late date, master space and time.

Сподівання, ніби-то ми все ще в змозі відмовитися від усього зайвого і обрати найсуттєвіше, - це своєрідна віра, яка нам

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Any source text, however, consists of words and word combinations which you are to translate to finally end up in a target text. And to say the least, words and word combinations are very different as to the problems they present for translation.

Compare, for example, words and word combinations in the left and right columns of the Table below.

organization	insider
society	power-broker
territory	mainstream
development	hot button
region	marginal

I It is easy to note that the entries in the left column present no prob-

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lem for translation whereas to find proper equivalents for those in the right column one needs at least broad context and desirably also a piece of background information.

The explanation lies in the fact that unlike those in the left column the right column words are relatively new language formations standing for also relatively new phenomena of the American culture. Then the next conclusion may be:

You will get more of such texts in the exercises after this lecture that prove the final conclusion³⁹:

•* To select proper equivalents one needs to be aware of the cultural background underlying the source text being translated.

9Ґ The choice of translation equivalents for individual words and word combinations depends on the translator's awareness in the un­derlying cultural background.

To get a better idea of the above equivalent selection factor consider an example:

The conservative commentator David Brooks argues in «Bobos in Para­dise» that the old bourgeoisie and the old bohemians have in the last genera­tion morphed into what he calls «Bobos» - bourgeois bohemians. The long­haired, tie-dye-shirted, sandal-shod free spirit is now in the corporate boardroom, and the things that seemed to divide the counterculture from the business culture have largely disappeared as a result.

These Bobos are obviously far less inclined than their Rotarian prede­cessors to fight the prudish battles against popular culture. They are products of that culture, and they like it.

Консервативний коментатор Девід Брукс у своєму есе «Бубо у раю» стверджує, що стара буржуазія і стара богема в останньому поколінні переродилися у те, що він називає «бубо» - буржуазна боге­ма. Колишні патлаті носії вільного духу в сандалях та яскравих сорочках сидять зараз у респектабельних офісах, і в результаті зникло все те, що, здавалось би, відділяло культуру протесту від бізнес-культури. На відміну від членів Ротаріанських клубів, місце яких вони зараз посіли, «бубо», очевидно, менш схильні до пуританських хрестових походів проти попкультури, бо вони самі є продуктом цієї культури, і ця культура їм до вподоби.

39

We purposefully include in the exercises after this lecture the texts partly or fully shown elsewhere in this Manual. We think it is worth analyzing these texts at a different angle.

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ЕЗ QUESTIONS

1. What are the basic factors that influence the choice of translation equivalents?

2. What is immediate context? How does it influence the choice of translation equivalents?

3. What is general context? How does it influence the choice of transla­tion equivalents?

4. What are the factors that influence the choice of translation equiva­lents of individual words and word combinations?

5. What is the role of cultural background in finding proper translation equivalents?

j§J EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Translate into Ukrainian. Suggest factors that influence the choice of translation equivalents.

BOTH SIDES WILL MAKE SURE AMERICA'S CULTURE WARS

CONTINUE The International Herald Tribune. April 12, 2001. ByNeal Gabler

The culture wars that so enlivened the 1980s and 1990s in America are said to be over. The savage fights that raged full-scale as recently as two years ago over gay rights, abortion, gun control, environmental pro­tection and general permissiveness, and that culminated in the Antietam of culture battles, Bill Clinton's impeachment and trial, seem to have just

petered out.

Pundits say the combatants, exhausted from all the verbal shelling, have accepted compromise rather than press on for total victory, and this has led to a new spirit of accommodation. One observer writes that the «crackle of cultural gunfire is now increasingly distant.»

It makes you wonder what country they're living in.

If Americans don't hear the crackle, it might be because the bombs detonating overhead drown it out. If Americans look around they will see that abortion, gun control, environmental protection, gay rights and, lately, campaign finance reform are still hot-button issues, and neither

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side seems especially willing to lay down arms. If anything, they seem emboldened after an election that showed the citizenry to be evenly di­vided. No one wants to give ground for fear the tide of battle will turn. But while the political war over social issues rages on, what these observ­ers might have really sensed is an increasing tolerance in the popular cul­ture for things once considered unacceptably outside the mainstream. Just a decade ago, there were no gays in television situation comedies. Now NBC's «Will Grace,» one of the most popular sitcoms, celebrates gay characters, and no one seems particularly lathered about it.

A decade ago, television commercials barely hinted at sex, lest they offend potential consumers. Now they hurl sexual innuendo, and no one bats an eye.

More than a decade ago, Madonna scandalized polite society with the suggestion that a new romance made her feel like a virgin. Now radio plays the most sexually explicit music, and no one notices. One might be excused for assuming, then, that there has been a truce and that a new era of cultural coexistence has dawned. But in truth this is hardly a new state of affairs. The popular culture has always been more tolerant than the political culture, and the tension between the two has accounted, in part, for the launching of the culture wars. Although it is a chicken-and-egg question, cultural conservatives raise a taboo and purveyors of popu­lar culture violate it. Then the conservatives rail against the violation, and the purveyors of popular culture rise to the challenge and push the enve­lope. Then the conservatives howl over the latest transgression, and the popular culture transgresses once again. And so it goes. It is a dynamic and continuous process, a symbiosis not only between the so-called con­servatives and liberals but also between both of these cohorts and society generally. Without it the culture would be directionless, which is not only why culture wars will continue but also why America need them to continue. How dull the culture would be without them. Conservatives might be ascendant in politics, setting the agenda since at least the days of Ronald Reagan, but they are always the beleaguered ones in the war over the popular culture.

That discrepancy between political power and cultural power is something to which they have never quite been able to reconcile them­selves. Militant conservatives simply cannot fathom how one can vote Republican, profess to embrace conservative values and yet buy Eminem

107

CDs or watch NBC's «The West Wing» or go see R-rated movies. To them it is both inconsistent and a betrayal.

The barrier, as they see it, isn't between politics and culture but be­tween conservative values and liberal values. They won the political war, so how come their troops aren't carrying the cultural one, too? Much to their dismay, the answer is that there are two different sets of armies in these two theaters of combat. In the political theater you have the famil­iar forces of liberalism and conservatism. In the cultural one, you have a variegated group of pop culture consumers including political right-wingers on the one side, and a bellicose band of religious and moral con­servatives on the other. The conservative commentator David Brooks argues in «Bobos in Paradise» that the old bourgeoisie and the old bo-hemians have in the last generation morphed into what he calls «Bobos» - bourgeois bohemians. The longhaired, tie-dye-shirted, sandal-shod free spirit is now in the corporate boardroom, and the things that seemed to divide the counterculture from the business culture have largely disappeared as a result.

These Bobos are obviously far less inclined than their Rotarian predecessors to fight the prudish battles against popular culture. They are products of that culture, and they like it.

Despite their heated rhetoric and noise, cultural conservatives just don't have the numbers.

When the culture wars began in America 150 years ago, it was be­cause elites and aristocrats, a tiny faction, feared and detested the rise of a genuinely democratic culture of almanacs, crime pamphlets, dime nov­els, penny newspapers, theatrical melodramas, popular music, circuses. As the elites saw it, this new culture, appealing to the masses, threatened the country by degrading its standards and morals. It was a culture of the proverbial lowest common denominator. As the 19th century pro­gressed, the elites gradually gave way to middle-class moralists and re­formers, but the moralists' arguments were essentially the same as the aristocrats'. Popular culture undermined American values. It promoted sex, violence,.vulgarity and disrespect for authority.

That was the argument when cultural conservatives were attacking saloon shows at the end of the 19th century, silent films, including the films of Charlie Chaplin, early in the 20th century, and sexual comedies in the 1920s and gangster pictures in the 1930s. It is still the argument

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when they attack movie blockbusters, cutting-edge television programs and rock CDs.

In professing to save America from the toxin of popular culture, conservatives were also saving themselves. Popular culture promoted the sort of values that further marginalized the critics and made them seem even more old-fashioned and irrelevant. It is a war they cannot afford to lose, so they have to keep soldiering on no matter how inexorably the popular culture seems to advance. They don't seem to realize that this culture might not be a form of cultural illiteracy. It might be a form of rebellion for people who deliberately choose what is likely to infuriate cultural commissars intent on telling them what is good for them.

Since the days of Andrew lackson, people embraced the «trashy» in direct proportion to the critics' hatred of it, thus asserting their cultural independence and power. It is one of the reasons the popular culture often goes to extremes. At the extremes lies the greatest irritation value.

The culture wars might ebb and flow, but they will never end. Con­servatives cannot concede defeat, because to do so would end the hope of their worldview ever prevailing.

And consumers of popular culture need that opposition to give themselves a target, a boundary to transgress. Without conservatives to excoriate it, the popular culture would lose its subversive subtext and the sneaky thrill of violation that fuels it.

Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian. Suggest items of cultural background neces­sary for translation.

ANIMALS HAVE TRADITIONALLY SHAPED HUMAN EVENTS. Leading article The Times, April 27, 2001. &>Ш

There everyone is, caught between horror at the ghastly enormity that is foot-and-mouth and ennui that it has dragged on for so long, when suddenly from the ashes there rises the sacred calf, Bambi reincar­nate. With her fluffy white fur, ox-eyed gaze and perfect pink pout Phoenix is the prettiest page 3 star Fleet Street has had in years. Suddenly amid the big, ugly world of slaughter trip the words «tiny», «white» and «innocent». Ministers quail and policy is made on the hoof.

People talk about causes needing a human face, but on the whole prefer an animal countenance. Mute bestial appeal is considered easier

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on the ear than, say, the guttural petition of asylum-seekers. We can be fairly indifferent to our own kind; it takes an animal to make us human. Phoenix's life would have been pretty dreadful under normal circum­stances, but no matter. She has assumed the symbolic status of The Cow That Changed History.

Animals have altered the course of events more often than might be imagined. Many's the time when mankind has felt himself to be sturdily at the helm, when in fact matters have been bunted along by beak or snout. Europe itself began this way when Europa was carried off into the ocean by a bullish Zeus, kicking and flailing before submitting to become a continent. For Christians the instigating beast is the serpent, worming his way into Eve's confidences with sinuous insinuations.

Ancient history is a positive bestiary of cloven goings on. The no­blest incidence of animal magic came in the form of the sacred geese whose cackling alerted their masters to a stealthy advance upon the Capi-toline Hill. Caligula's bestowal of a consulship upon his horse was rather less successful, being one of all-too-many final straws that broke the populace's back and led to his being dispatched at the Palatine Games. Cleopatra's exit pursued by an asp showed far better judgment.

Animals also throw up historical «what-ifs». What if Richard III had traded his kingdom for a horse, Dick Whittington not been so bounteous with his cat, or Catherine the Great been less pony crazy? In the multi­media age pets can win the ultimate prizes and emerge as global mega-stars. The orbit of Sputnik's dog, Laika, made him the fantasy comrade of the world's youth.

The Prime Minister's personal intervention as Phoenix's saviour is a bow to the electoral beasts of the apocalypse. It is a case of chicken, but the public will see only a happy ending to The Calfs Tale.

Lecture 12. TRANSLATION VARIETIES

This Lecture:

• introduces the classification of translation based on physical parameters;

• familiarizes the students with sub-categories of translation depending on genre;

• "outlines approaches translators use when handling these varieties.

Generally speaking all translation varieties have much in common -similar approaches, similar translation means and devices. According to physical parameters of translation process, however, translation is di­vided into written translation (or simply translation) and oral (or inter­pretation).

Interpretation, in its turn, is traditionally divided into consecutive in­terpretation and simultaneous interpretation. Chuchotage and at-sight in­terpretation are commonly regarded as alternatives of consecutive inter­pretation despite minor differences in physical procedures.

Written translation is also divided into several sub-categories de­pending on the genre of the text being translated, such as literary transla­tion (fiction, poetry and publicistic texts), translation of official docu­ments, etc.

Ш* In consecutive interpretation the interpretation follows the source utterance, whereas simultaneous interpretation is performed simultaneously with the original speech.

This time lag of the interpreter relative to the speaker is the main distinction of consecutive interpretation, which determines the peculiari­ties of the approach and translation devices used by the interpreter.

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Ill

In a similar way almost zero time lag of the interpreter during simul­taneous interpretation is critical for the choice of translation devices and approaches as well as determines the necessity of using special equip­ment for interpretation.

•* Consecutive interpreter generally prefers denotative approach since it is virtually impossible to memorize the entirety of the long text passages being translated and translate close to the source text.

Simultaneous interpreter is bound to keep to transformational approach interpreting the source text by small fragments.

•► Without special equipment simultaneous interpretation is im­possible.

The equipment for simultaneous interpretation comprises ear­phones, a microphone and a sound-insulated booth which serves as the interpreter's work-place. Because of physical and mental strain simulta­neous interpretation is considered the hardest and most stressing inter­pretation variety that requires special skills and qualities. It is regarded as a top class of interpretation and demands special vocation and training. Basic skills and training methods of consecutive and simultaneous inter­preters are discussed below in this Manual (Lecture 15).

As it has been already mentioned all translation varieties use similar approaches and translation devices. Both in written translation and dur­ing the interpretation the translator (interpreter) may use either trans­formational or denotative approach.⁴⁰

Basically, the choice of one or another approach in written transla­tion depends on the genre of the text being translated rather than on the translation variety. In interpretation practice, however, there are two in­stances when the choice of approach is determined by the working envi­ronment.

⁴⁰ It is worth reminding here that according to transformational approach translation (interpretation) is performed by relatively small and regular syntac-tico-semantic fragments of the source sentences whereas the denotative approach is based on larger text fragments (at least, a sentence) with occasional equivalents (see more above).

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It should be added mat in translation the decisions made by the translator are the results of thorough speculation and, ideally, are con­scious, whereas in interpretation the interpreter's decisions are mainly subconscious and intuitive.

As concerns translation devices, they are basically the same for all translation varieties. Moreover, it is hardly possible and feasible to ex­plain when to use which device - in many aspects translation is an art implying constant search for unprecedented decisions. However, in this Manual we attempt to file a sort of translation device inventory when it seems rational (Lectures 10 and 15). For example, one of the instances when particular devices are feasible is text compression during interpre­tation (see below in Lecture 15).

Chuchotage and at-sight interpretation are two specific alternatives of consecutive interpretation proper. During chuchotage the interpreter speaks in low voice, almost whispers so that only the interpretation user can hear. This interpretation alternative is rather hard for the interpreter who has to control the pitch of his or her voice. As concerns the ap­proach it is similar to that used in standard consecutive interpretation.

At-sight interpretation is another variety of consecutive interpreta­tion. The difference is that the interpreter reads a written text in a source language rather than listening to the speaker as in ordinary consecutive interpretation. However, there is a peculiarity of this interpretation vari­ety which, unfortunately, is often overlooked.

It is stylistical discrepancy between the written document and its oral interpretation: the styles of written documents (literary, official, etc.) radically differ from the colloquial style any interpreter tends to use in

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interpretation (the expressions used in written language are different and the interpreter has to adapt to them which is not as easy as it might seem at first sight)⁴¹. To check the truthfulness of this statement do exercises after this lecture.

Completing this discussion of translation varieties it is worth dis­cussing the translation accessories and working environments of transla­tion and interpretation. The difference is substantial. A translator has at hand dictionaries and reference materials and, as a rule, observes no spe­cific time limits for the work; translation may be self-edited and redone if so required.

An interpreter is entirely self-dependent and cannot rely on any out­side help: mistakes, slips of tongue are immediately noticeable and derate the translation. In other words, the interpretation and translation tasks are equally hard, but different as different are the required skills and training methods discussed below in the lectures that follow.

Similar difficulty is experienced by the interpreters when the speaker reads his paper prepared in advance rather than speaking off-hand.

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О QUESTIONS

1. What varieties are distinguished in translation?

2. Are translation approaches and devices similar in different transla­tion varieties?

3. What are the principle differences between consecutive and simulta­neous interpretation?

4. What are chuchotage and at-sight interpretation?

5. Describe differences in working environments of a translator and interpreter?

\§} EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Interpret the text recording your interpretation, then translate in writ­ing. Compare the translation and interpretation, comment on the differ­ences.

The star had made seven enormously popular horror films, five of them talking pictures, and was being compared to the great American actor Lon Chaney. Yet nobody knew anything about Johann Ingersoll. There were no photographs of him except in the grotesque makeup he invented for each picture. His biography listed only his films. He never granted interviews and went to unusual lengths to protect his real iden­tity. Adding further to his mystique was Ingersoll's eccentric habit of ar­riving on the set each day in makeup and leaving the same way.

Ex. 2. Ask your fellow student to read the text for you. Interpret it in con­secutive manner recording the interpretation. Observe the difference between at-sight and regular consecutive translation.

HAS THIS BEEN A TERM OF ENDEARMENT? The Observer, Sunday April 29, 2001. Andrew Rawnsley, columnist of the year.

Tony Blair's government has made history. What it has yet to dem­onstrate is the capacity to change the country's destiny.

A week is a long time in politics; 48 months is an eternity. Four years ago this Wednesday, Tony Blair stood before the black door on his sun-

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dappled first day in office. 'Enough of talking,' said the man of action. 'It is time now to do.' Strip off the hype which has gushed from Number 10 ever since; blow away the froth of the daily headlines. How has his gov­ernment actually done? Let us try, as clinically as is possible, to assess the performance of New Labour.

The starter test of any government, I would suggest, is that it is rea­sonably accomplished at governing. This sounds an undemanding hur­dle, but it is a first fence many previous governments have failed to sur­mount. The Blair government has made serious, self-inflicted mistakes -the Millennium Dome blasts them still. The unexpected has come close to blowing them over. Foot and mouth has not been - I am being chari­table - a textbook example of how to handle an emergency. The Gov­ernment teetered on the lip of the abyss during last autumn's fuel pro­tests. It is natural that we should curse their blunders more than we offer credit for the mistakes they have avoided. But the Blair government has eschewed perpetrating any spectacular errors.

The novices to red boxes who took office four years ago have broadly run a competent government. Its life has been punctuated by crises, which have been invariably generated not by dissident backbench­ers or off-message Ministers, but erupted from the inner core of the re­gime. There have been gripping soap operas, none more so than the double resignations of Peter Mandelson. But the damage done has been to the actors, not to the country at large. There has not been the eco­nomic calamity or civil crisis which destroys governments and wrecks countries.

The Blair government has not inflicted upon us a Suez, a Three Day week or a Winter of Discontent. There has not been the vicious social conflict of the inner-city riots and the miners' strike in the Eighties. There has not been anything approaching the ruinousness of Thatcher's poll tax or Major's Black Wednesday. Just by being reason ably adept at ruling, the Blair administration is lifted above the average run of postwar governments.

The next test of any government is whether it has been true to its promises. Generally, the soi-distant People's Prime Minister has fulfilled the rather low expectations the people had of him. Blair was elected on a paradoxical prospectus. The subtext of his campaign was: everything is appalling; we will change it very slowly. The Conservatives may have left

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office in May 1997, but their term of power did not properly end until just two years ago, when Gordon Brown finally released the Government from the Tory spending corset. Transformed schools and hospitals await realisation. If not delivered in the second term, the punishment of the electorate may be terrible.

Blair's most reckless pledge was to restore faith in public life. Back on May Day 1997, even the most cynical observer did not anticipate they would have quite so much sleaze in them. In other respects, this gov­ernment has delivered more than it promised. The last manifesto pledged nothing about child benefit - it has actually risen by 25 per cent. They did not claim to be able to create full employment, yet they have achieved that historic goal of Labour.

Any set of rulers with an eye on claiming a large place in posterity must aspire to be more than competent deliverers. The superior rank of government is occupied by those which make changes lasting beyond their lifetime. It is not conceivable that the Conservatives could unravel devolution to Scotland and Wales, an aspiration of progressive govern­ments dating back to Gladstone.

One of the ironies of Blair is that, for all his relentless emphasis on the modern, his bigger achievements have been based on ambitions set by long-dead predecessors. A settlement in Ireland has eluded every pre­mier since the nineteenth century. The minimum wage was a Labour goal when Keir Hardie founded the party. The Tories have been com­pelled to accept it, just as they have been forced to support independence for the Bank of England. This government could come to a full stop to­day - and would leave enduring legacies.

There are other elements of the Blair record which the Right accepts because they are as amazed as many on the Left are disgusted that they have been enacted by a Labour government.

Which takes us to my next test of a government: has it permanently altered the framework of political choice? The verdict here is mixed. With a little help from the grisly pantomime that is William Hague's Conservative Party, New Labour commands the centre ground and swathes of territory on both flanks. Harold Wilson's unrequited dream of making Labour 'the natural party of government' is closer to realisa­tion by Tony Blair than under any previous Labour Prime Minister.

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But he has achieved it more by following the consensus than by chal­lenging the status quo. His government has pandered to illiberality more often than it has confronted prejudice. It has become a little less bashful about making the case for the active state and a fairer society, but re­mains coy of full candour.

Since the Third Way was giggled to death, it has become ever clearer that this is a government which moves by inches rather than leaps. There is nothing intrinsically wrong with that: small steps, provided there are enough of them, can take you on a long journey.

Baby bonds are an eye-catching device to give the poor an asset stake in society. But this is the safest sort of radicalism. The first beneficiaries of the scheme will not come into possession of their modest endowments until Mr Blair is eligible for his pension. He, Gordon Brown, David Blunkett and Alistair Darling, along with the Institute for Public Policy Research and the Fabian Society, all claim paternity over baby bonds. When one good notion has to be spread around four Cabinet Ministers and two think tanks, it tells us that New Labour is not bursting with bold and innovatory ideas.

This brings me to the last and most demanding test. The out­standing governments are those which alter the country's destiny. The project to secure the exclusion of the Conservatives from power for a generation has withered as Blair's enthusiasm for changing the Westmin­ster voting system has shrivelled. In terms of the private goals he set for his premiership, the most evident failure has been Europe. Towards Europe as a whole, and towards the single currency especially, public opinion is more aggressively hostile than ever.

The greatest wrangling between the Prime Minister and the Chan­cellor about the next manifesto is not over what it says about tax, but about the warmth of the phraseology towards the single currency. The fiercest struggle about that is within Mr Blair himself. Will he hedge his self-perceived destiny with deadening qualifications or will he articulate the belief that his epochal role is to make Britain a fully engaged partner in Europe?

The Blair government has demonstrated that it can make history. Only in its second term will we discover whether it has the capacity to change the future.

Lecture 13. LITERARY TRANSLATION

This Lecture:

• describes written translation subcategories;

• introduces the notion of hypertext;

• discusses challenges facing a literary translator.

As mentioned in the previous Lecture, written translation is divided into several subcategories depending on the genre of the texts being translated. Literary translation forms one of such subcategories being, perhaps, unique and the most sophisticated of all.

This translation variety requires special skills and talents and, unlike some other varieties (e.g., translation of official documents) it cannot be formalized or standardized. The explanation of the uniqueness and un­precedented nature of each literary translation piece lies in the following statement.

•► In literary translation the translator is to render the images of the source text rather than only facts like in other translation and inter­pretation varieties.

Below, to illustrate the statement, let us compare the following pas­sage from A Farewell to Arms by Ernest Hemingway with its translation into Ukrainian.

I stopped at a barber shop Я зайшов до перукарні й по-

and was shaved and went home голився, потім попростував до

to the hospital. My leg was as госпіталю. Моя нога вже так змі-

well as it would get for a long цніла, що кращого й бажати було

time. I had been up for examina- годі. За три дні перед тим я був

tion three days before. There на комісії. Мені залишалось усьо-

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were still some treatments to take before my course at the Ospedale Maggiore was finished and I walked along the side street practicing not limping. An old man was cutting silhouettes under an arcade. I stopped to watch him. Two girls were pos­ing and he cut their silhouettes together, snipping very fast and looking at them, his head on one side. The girls were giggling. He showed me the silhouettes be­fore he pasted them on white paper and handed them to the girls.

«They're beautiful» he said. «How about you, Tenente?»

The girls went away looking at their silhouettes and laughing. They were nice-looking girls. One of them worked in the wine shop across from the hospital.

«All right,» I said.

«Take your cap off.»

«No. With it on.»

«It will not be so beautiful,» the old man said. «But,» he brightened, «it will be more military.»

He snipped away at the black paper, separated the two thicknesses and pasted the pro­files on a card and handed them to. 'How much?»

«That's all right». He waved his hand. «I just made them for

го кілька процедур до кінця ліку­вання в Головному госпіталі, і я йшов бічною вулицею, намагаю­чись не кульгати. Під склепінчас­тим під'їздом одного будинку якийсь старий вирізував паперові силуети. Я зупинився подиви­тись. Йому позували двоє дівчат, і він вирізував їхні силуети вкупі, швидко орудуючи ножицями й раз по раз нахиляючи голову вбік, щоб позирнути на дівчат. Дівчата хихотіли. Він показав силуети мені, а тоді вже наклеїв їх на білий папір і віддав дівча­там.

- Он які красуні,- сказав він.- А ви не хочете, лейтенанте?

Дівчата пішли, роздивляю­чись свої силуети і сміючись. Обидві були гарненькі. Одна з них працювала у кав'ярні проти нашого госпіталю.

• Ну зробіть, - сказав я. Зніміть кашкета.

• Ні. В кашкеті.

- Буде не так гарно,- сказав старий.- Зате,- усміхнувся він, - дуже войовниче.

Він заходивсь обрізувати складений удвоє чорний папір, потім розняв готові профілі, на­клеїв їх на картку й подав мені.

• Скільки з мене?

• Пусте.- Він махнув рукою.-Я зробив їх вам за спасибі.

• Ну будь ласка.- Я витяг з

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you.»

«Please,» I brought out some coppers. «For pleasure.»

«No. I did them for a pleas­ure. Give them to your girl.»

«Many thanks until we meet.»

«Until I see thee.»

I went on to the hospital. There were some letters, an offi­cial one, and some others. I was to have three weeks' convales­cent leave and then return to the front. I read it over carefully. Well, that was that. The conva­lescent leave started October fourth when my course was fin­ished. Three weeks was twenty-one days. That made October twenty-fifth. I told them I would not be in and went to the restau­rant a little way up the street from hospital for supper and read my letters and the Corriere della Sera at the table. There was a letter from my grandfather, containing family news, patriotic encouragement, a draft for two hundred dollars, and a few clip­pings; a dull letter from the priest at our mess; a letter from a man I knew who was flying with the French and had gotten in with a wild gang and was telling about it, and a note from Rinaldi asking me how long I was going

кишені кілька монет.- Зробіть мені приємність.

• Ні. Мені самому було при­ємно вирізати їх. Подаруйте сво­їй дівчині.

• Дуже вам дякую. Бувайте здорові.

• Ходи здоровий, синку.

Я повернувся до госпіталю. Там на мене чекало кілька листів, один з них - службовий. Мені надавали тритижневу відпустку на одужання, а потім я мав пове­рнутися на фронт. Я уважно пе­речитав листа. Еге ж, отак воно. Відпустка починалася з четверто­го жовтня, того самого дня, коли я закінчував курс лікування. Три тижні - це двадцять один день. Отже, двадцять п'ятого жовтня. Я сказав у госпіталі, що знов іду, й подався до ресторану на тій-таки вулиці, майже поруч госпі­талю, повечеряти і почитати лис­ти й «Corriere della Sera». Один лист був від мого діда: родинні новини, патріотичні гасла, чек на двісті доларів та кілька газетних вирізок; ще був нудний лист від нашого священика, лист від од­ного знайомого, який служив у французькому авіазагоні й весело проводив час у гурті відчайдуш­них гультяїв, про що й сповіщав мене; та ще коротка писулька від Рінальді. Він запитував, чи довго

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to skulk in Milano and what was я ще думаю огинатися в Мілані й all the news? He wanted me to що нового взагалі. Крім того, bring him phonograph records просив привезти грамофонних and enclosed a list. платівок і додав до листа їх спи-

сок.

The most striking examples, however, of this unique feature of liter­ary translation gives us poetry:

Заповіт

Тарас Шевченко

Як умру, то поховайте Мене на могилі, Серед степу широкого На Вкраїні милій, Щоб лани широкополі, І Дніпро, і кручі Було видно, було чути Як реве ревучий. Як понесе з України У синєє море Кров ворожу... отоді я І лани,і гори -Все покину і полину До самого бога Молитися... а до того Я не знаю бога. Поховайте та вставайте Кайдани порвіте І вражою злою кров'ю Волю окропіте. І мене в сім'ї великій В сім'ї вольній, новій, Не забудьте пом'янути Незлим тихим словом.

The Testament

by Taras Shevchenko

Dig my grave and raise my barrow

By the Dnieper-side

In Ukraina, my own land,

A fair land and wide.

I will lie and watch the cornfields,

Listen through the years

To the river voices roaring,

Roaring in my ears.

When I hear the call

Of the racing flood,

Loud with hated blood,

I will leave them all,

Fields and hills; and force my way

Right up to the Throne

Where God sits alone;

Clasp His feet and pray...

But till that day

What is God to me?

Bury me, be done with me, Rise and break your chain, Water your new liberty With blood for rain. Then, in the mighty family

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Of all men that are free, May be sometimes, very softly You will speak of me?

Translated by E.L. Voynich London, 1911

It is easy to note that in the above translation example of the well-known Shevchenko's «Testament» individual information items (facts) are sometimes radically different or missing but the images forming in the translation readers' minds are virtually similar to those triggered in the minds of the source text readers. The same applies to the translation of prose pieces, though, maybe, to a lesser degree.

To fully understand the task of the literary translator it is worthwhile to recall the communicational scheme of translation. As you might re­member, the author of the source text sends a message to the source lan­guage speakers and the translator's task is to render this message for the speakers of the target language. For the translated message to be under­stood properly by the target language audience it is necessary that the knowledge bases (thesauruses) of the author, translator and translation users were similar.

This task is rather easy when the translator deals with facts as in translation of technical or official documents - one is only to match grammar patterns (perform regular transformations) and properly choose the equivalents.⁴²

Should the translator manage to achieve these goals, the translation will be a success, because facts are objective and understood in the same way by all people with similar educational background.

The situation with literary translation, however, is radically different. In literary translation

• the translator is to render mental images and trigger emotions similar to those initiated by the source text in its readers;

• the images and emotions are known to be extremely subjective;

• the words causing similar images and emotions may be different in different languages.

Sometimes this is not that easy, but still easier than create a unique image.

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That is why literary translation is an artistic creation and to be suc­cessful it must be accepted by the language speakers' community of the target language as a piece of literary prose in their native language, unlike other translation varieties which may be tolerated by the users even in poor quality (factual information sometimes is more important for the users than grammatical and stylistic correctness).

Besides, there is another factor that makes literary texts so difficult for translation - it is so called hypertext.

•► Hypertext is the collective meaning of a literary text comprising all associations and allusions acquired by the words and word com­binations of this text in their previous usage.

Since means and devices of hypertext may be different in source and target languages, the translator is to find appropriate target language substitutes for the source hypertext elements.

It is hardly possible and desirable to give a universal prescription for hypertext substitutions in translation - the grounds of the choice are unique in each case.

Moreover, because of the unique cultural background of each nation a large share of the source hypertext is lost in translation.⁴³

Thus, in literary translation an important role is played by literary images and hypertext, however, speaking about this translation variety one should also keep in mind the following.

♦ The target text of literary translation is a piece of fiction belonging to the target language literature. That is why the knowledge of the target language is so critical for this translation type.

These associations and allusions may be acquired when words and word combinations were used in other texts: books, popular songs, say­ings, films, etc. For instance, word combination реве та стогне is closely connected in the minds of Ukrainian speakers with the popular song and when used in a different context still preserve this connection. The same applies to words бузина and дядько. Used together in any context they still remain associated with the saying На городі бузина, в Києві дядько and this association rings a bell in the native speakers' minds, though often subconsciously.

Of course, these examples are the simplest - generally the hypertext allusions are extremely subtle and often not even recognized at the con­scious level. Yet, they are very important for the adequate perception of a literary text which makes translator's task especially hard.

In order to explain possible ways to render the hypertext in transla­tion let's recall again the communication theory. The author's text must comply with the hypertext thesaurus of the source text readers and in a similar way the hypertext of translation must 'ring a bell' in the minds of the target text readers.

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•* Literary translation should be recognized by the target language speakers as a literary text in their native language.

• In literary translation of dialogues the translator should take exact account of the speakers' character and situation of the dialogue. This in­formation determines the style of translation.

• Stylistic devices and expression means as well as connotations and shades of meaning of individual words are critical elements of 'image-making' in literary translation.

See also the lecture on translation into English in this Manual.

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О QUESTIONS

1. What are the distinctive features of literary translation?

2. What is hypertext? Define it. Give examples of hypertext allusions and associations.

3. Can a translator render the whole of the source hypertext? If not, then what part of the hypertext is lost?

4. What is the attitude of the target language audience to a piece of lit­erary translation?

5. What is to be taken into account in translation of dialogues?

dJ EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Translate into Ukrainian. Try first word-by-word translation. Ex­plain why it fails and give literary translation. Suggest stylistic means and devices that are used to create the images of the source text, compare them with those in your translation.

He was struck by the realization that what had been a traumatic and monumental moment in his life had been an infinitesimal part of the battle, by the insignificance of his part in the brutal encounter. And as Rudman read on, the story gathered a kind of chilling energy unto itself and Keegan began to feel its power. (William Diehl)

Ex. 2. Translate into Ukrainian using characters' backgrounds (a journalist and a young soldier) as a basis for the selection of equivalents.

«Hi,» Rudman had greeted him holding out his hand, «I'm Bert Rudman, Herald Tribune out of Paris.»

«Keegan,» was all the youngster had mumbled back.

«Were you at Belleau Wood?»

«I think so.»

«How bad is it?» Rudman asked nodding toward his leg.

«Bad enough to get me home.» He paused for a moment and then asked, «Did we win?»

Rudman had stared at him for a moment, the significance of the question slowly sinking in. Then he smiled. «You sure did, kiddo. Kicked the Kaiser's ass right back where it came from and then some.»

«That's good,» Keegan said.

Lecture 14. TRANSLATION INTO ENGLISH

This Lecture: • emphasizes the essential features to be remembered by the students when

translating into English: , , _ • pre-determined order of words in a sentence;

• verbal style of expression;

• analytical way of expressing semantic and syntactic relations between words;

• the use of prepositional structures.

When translating into any language one is expected to treat with due regard the peculiarities of its grammatical and lexico-semantic systems. Of numerous peculiarities of the system of English the following three are, perhaps, the most important for translation into this language.

1. Definite (pre-determined) order of words in a sentence.

2. Predominantly verbal style of expression.

1. Analytical way of expressing semantic and syntactic relations between words (by positioning rather than by prepositions and case forms).

If one compares the above features of English with

• free word order,

• predominantly nominative style of expression and

♦ expression of semantic and syntactic relations by prepositions and/or case forms

typical for Ukrainian the principle objectives of Ukrainian-English translation may be phrased as follows.

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•► When translating from Ukrainian into English the translator is:

• to change the word order in the source sentences in accord with the English syntax;

• to change the source text style into predominantly verbal and

• to express the syntactic and semantic relations between nouns by their proper positioning.

by the target audience. The best way to do this provides a combination of denotative approach (interpretation of the content) and transforma­tional scheme (transforming Ukrainian phrases into standard English expressions).

•* In English-Ukrainian translation the translator is expected to interpret the content of the source text using standard phrasing of the target language speakers.

Let's take an example of Ukrainian the above recommendation.

As one can see a non-native speaking translator can achieve good re­sults in Ukrainian-English translation only through using standard (cli-cheed) English phrasing. The reason of this requirement becomes clear if you recall the information on hypertext discussed earlier in this Manual.

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Speaking of translation means and devices the most applicable ones for Ukrainian-English translation are restructuring (rewording) of the source sentences, replacement of noun combinations by verbal struc­tures and substitution of target noun clusters for source prepositional combinations.

It should be noted, however, that all said above is valid only for the general case - each particular translation case demands individual con­sideration.

Let's take an example to illustrate a typical Ukrainian-English trans­formations.

Необхідно негайно провести голосування з цього питання. «The issue is to be voted immediately.»

Note rewording and replacement of the nominative combination by the verbal construction in the above example.

As concerns the approaches used in Ukrainian-English translation one is to remember that the denotative approach and transformations are used in combination.

To explain the necessity of denotative approach when translating into English one is to apply the communicational scheme of translation.

The matter is that the target audience of Ukrainian-English transla­tion is foreigners having cultural and educational background which sometimes radically differs from Ukrainian culture and ways of life. Hence, in order to convey the source text content in an optimal way one should translate it using the phrasing common to and easily understood

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Міцне, повите спокійною усмішкою обличчя. Вилитий Іван! Чистісінько батькова кру-тобровість. Наче той ожив, на­че воскрес...

...Вже викликають інших. З числа цивільних одержує гра­моту і той модерняга, що приїздив мотоциклом до кіношників, пропонував зіграти роль анонімника. Одержавши нагороду й відходячи від столу, підморгнув Колосовському: а ви, мовляв, не хотіли брати... Не знаєте, братці, людей... (Oles Honchar)

English translation to illustrate

The strong face, the smile.... The arched brows. He was the im­age of Ivan! Ivan himself may have come to life again, risen from the dead.

...Others were called. One of the civilians was the dashing young fellow who had come on his motorcycle asking to be given the role of anonymous letter-writer. He took his certificate and as he left the table winked at Ko-losovsky, as though to say: And you didn't want to take me. You're a poor judge of people...

0 QUESTIONS

1. What are the peculiarities of the English language system which are to be taken into account in Ukrainian-English translation?

2. What are the most important changes of the source text in Ukrain­ian-English translation?

3. What is the optimal approach in Ukrainian-English translation?

4. Why is it desirable to use standard (clicheed) expressions when translating into a foreign language.

5. Grade the texts according to difficulties they present for Ukrainian-English translation.

{§} EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Read the Ukrainian text and its translation into English. Observe the way the Ukrainian cultural idioms are translated. Describe the structural changes and changes in the text content.

A non-native speaking translator simply may not know the hypertext underlying the equivalents and only standard language cliches (to a cer­tain extent!) guarantee proper choice of equivalents with relevant conno­tations.

•> The use of standard (clicheed) phrases in translation into English is desirable since they are repeatedly tested by native speakers and carry with them correct associations and allusions.

Of course, in literary translation this aspect is more important than in translation of technical or official documents. Generally speaking, the effectiveness of translation into English by a foreigner depends on the type of the source text. The lowest level of connotations is observed in legal texts where no ambiguity is tolerated, besides, legal texts are highly clicheed. In a way the same is true for technical texts and official docu­ments. This is where one may expect good results translating into English by standard 'well-worn' expressions.

All said above about translation into English applies both to written translation and interpretation, although some peculiarities of interpreta­tion proper are discussed in the lecture that follows.

Місяць все щедріше обб­ризкував сяйвом оброшені де­рева і шлях, чіткіше обрисову­вались нерозсідлані коні, а притишені пісні козаків пори­вались і поривались на далекі дороги, до укляклих вишняків, до червоних калин і чорних пожарищ, де б мати чи батько і вірне кохання. Було в тих піс­нях і степове озерце, де плава­ло відеречко три дні під водою, був і сердега бурлак, в якого заболіло тіло, ще й голівонька; був і кінь, що клонить голову за козаком, була і дівчина, якій вгортав ноги своєю шапкою молодик. Туга віків і надії віків

The moon-silver fell more lav­ishly on the dew-covered trees and road, picking out the saddled horses; and the muted voices of the Cossacks still sang of the rapids, the bowed cherry-trees, the red guelder roses and the black ashes, yearning for the distant home where their father or mother, or sweetheart, perhaps, awaited them. There was the steppe lake, too, in those songs, the lake where the bucket floated for three days on the water; there was the poor boatman dragging barges up the river with aching head and back; there was the horse hanging his head in grief for his Cossack master and there was the

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сходились у молодих голосах і слалися старим шляхом, стис­каючи і веселячи серце...

Старий... схрестив руки на палиці. Тепер сивина його бо­роди якраз колихалася над пе­рехрестям рук.

- То не можна було когось знайти старшого чи розумні­ шого? Ти ж іще пуцьверінок у мене.

Тимофій посміхнувся, ба­гатозначно повів очима і одве­рнув голову від батька, щоб не розсміятися.

• В такому ділі не по ста­ршинству, а по совісті виби­рають, - заступився за друга Свирид.

• Коли по совісті - нічого не скажу: мій синаш ніколи, Свириде, в сірка очей не пози­чав, але молодий він ще до цього діла, земля старіших лю­бить, тих, які не тільки верх, а й глибину її чують.

-Діду, та який він моло­дий: вашому Тимофію вже по­вних тридцять п'ять років.

- Тридцять п'ять, три­ дцять п'ять! - перекривив ста­ рий.- Швидко ви все робите і швидко лічите. Спішите ку­ дись до дідька. А колись у нас

girl whose feet her Cossack warmed with his fur cap. Ancient sorrow and ancient hope blended together in the young voices and flowed along the old road, wringing and gladdening hearts.

His hands gripped the top of his stick and his grey beard fell over them. «Couldn't they find someone older, and with more sense, too? You're only a kid.»

Timofi gave Svirid an eloquent look and turned away from the old man to hide his smile.

«In things like that, it isn't age that counts, it's whether a man's straight and honest,» said Svirid, coming to his friend's rescue.

«He's honest all right. My son has never done a crooked thing in his life, Svirid. He's too young for this job though, the land likes to be handled by older people who know it through and through.»

«But Granddad, you can't say he's that young, your Timofi's all of thirty-five!»

«Thirty-five, indeed,» the old man snorted. «You do everything mighty quick these days, and you count the years quick too, like you were all of a rush to get somewhere, to the devil, maybe. We didn't reckon years that way in my day.»

«How did you do it, Dad?»

The old man thrust his right hand into his beard where it stirred

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не так лічили роки.

- А як же, тату?

Батько вплів у бороду пра­вицю, вона темним звірятком заворушилась на сивині.

- Як? Ніби забувся? Літа були, Тимофію, тоді збоку, а попереду - чоловік. От коли я повів тебе наймати до Варчу- ків, там обдивилися, обмацали очима з усіх боків і питають: «Скільки ж років синові?» Я й кажу: «Та вже пастушок». Так і пішов ти до череди. А коли в економію, у строк, од Стрітен- ня до Семена, записував тебе, так тож в конторі допитували­ ся: «Скільки років синові?» - «Та вже погонич»,- підказую. І де не питали про твої роки, говорив тільки про те, чого ти по роботі вартий: «Уже й орач» або «Уже й косар». Ін­ ший і до сивого волосу дожи­ ве, а косарем не годен стати, а ти ще й на вулицю вечорами не заглядав, а на лузі отамана вів. Отака моя всюди метрика була, аж поки тобі й лоба не забрили. А тепер новомодна метрика почалася: не встиг зносити першу пару штанів - і в начальство преться... То що ти собі думаєш, Тимофію? На легкий хліб перейти?

Маревом, блиском усе пе­реповнене. Все злилось, поєд-

like a little brown animal in a thicket of grey.

«How? Have you forgotten, Timofi? It was the man that mat­tered, not his years. That first time I took you to the Varchuks to work, they looked you up and they looked you down, feeling all over you with their eyes, and then they asked me, 'How old is your lad?' And what did I answer them? I told them, 'He's a herdsboy.' So you went to the herd. And when I signed you on to work on the estate from St.Valentine's to St. Semyon's Day, they wanted to know the same-'How old is your lad?' 'He's a teamster now,' I told them. And whenever they asked your years, I told them your work. 'He's a ploughman,' I'd say, or 'He's al­ready a mower.' Some grow old and grey and still can't be called mowers, but you were taking the lead with the scythe in the mead­ows before you ever joined the dancing on the village green at night. And that's how your age was reckoned until you were called up. They've a newfangled way of reck­oning age now-a lad can aim to be an official before he's worn out his first pair of pants.... What's in your mind, Timofi? After an easy life, are you?»

The mirage of shimmering light filled every thing. That reed!

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налось в стихії сонця, в гармо­нії життя. Стоп, катер! Яка очеретина! Як вона переблис­кує, торкнута вітерцем... Скі­льки пластики в коливанні цієї стеблини з хитливим ритміч­ним переливом світла на ній! Віддзеркалена на мигтючім екрані води, вона похитується, живе, не-чутно розмовляє з водою, з вітром, із сонцем, з другом вашим, може, розмов-ля... Вхопи, зафіксуй цей порух очеретини, і світіння вод, і срі­блястість верб, їх епічну заду­му... Зафільмуй, збережи цю велику творчість природи! Але кому, навіщо? Хто дорожити­ме? Чи перед ким із прийдеш­ніх постане цей величавий спо­кій гирла і ця очеретина в її плавкім коливанні, чи оживе вона, як рядок гекзаметра, як скалка краси, як необхідність?

- Толстой десь сказав: лю­ди як ріки, - почувся задумли­вий голос Ярослави.- Наче про Сергія сказав...

«Ця ріка, вона теж як лю­дина: сягнула свого апогею, вибухла повінню світла і саме тепер, коли світлом мудрості осяяна, в спокійних розтоках гирла мусить завершувати свій плин... Вже стає Океаном».

Не впізнати ріку. Те, що недавно чорно ревіло, ламало,

How its colours changed as the breeze rippled through it.... How much plastic movement there was in that saying stem with the rhyth­mic play of light upon it! Reflected in the shimmering water the reed lived, talked inaudibly with the wa­ter, the wind, the sun, and perhaps with your friend. Photograph it, its movement, the light on the water, the silvery willows, their epic pen-siveness. Photograph it, preserve this great creation of nature! But for whom? For what? Who would treasure it? Would anyone see this majestic calm of the wide estuary and that reed with its trembling sway, as a fragment of beauty, a necessity?

«Tolstoy said somewhere that people are like river,» Yaroslava said musingly. «It might have been said about Sergei.»

«And this river is like man. It has reached its apotheosis, broken out into a flood of light and now, when it has taken all into itself, when it is illuminated with the light of wisdom, it must complete its flow, pacified, through the bound­less estuary. And become the Ocean.»

The river was unrecognisable. So recently it had roared, smashed, destroyed, but here there was a dif­ferent flood, one which lay placid and destroyed nothing.

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трощило, тут поступилося мі­сцем іншій повені - повені, яка не руйнує.

Плине, ущерть налита сві­тлом, ріка. Розсунула очерети, розлилася привільне, відтво­рює саму широчінь і сяйво не­ба, з усім живим спілкується своєю безмовною мовою... Тут я впадаю в Світовий океан. З цими очеретами прощаюсь, що, як єгипетські папіруси, вбирають й себе щедрі тайно-щі світла... Прощаюсь з при­кордонною вишкою, що висо­чить в очеретах, і прикордон­ник молодий там чатує угорі з біноклем... Цей день чатує, за­литий потопом світла, і марев­ну тишу верб, і безконтроль­ний політ птаха понад усі ме­жові знаки... Йду, зникаю сво­їми прісними водами в Світо­вім океані. Він поглинає мене, одну з безлічі рік, щоб уподіб­нити собі, розчинити у синіх своїх безмежжях. А чи так уже й безслідно зникаю? Не позна­чусь хіба - хоч певною мірою -на складі його ж власних вод, на мірі її солоності, на рівні його берегів, на самому харак­тері Океану? Ріка рівнин і гір, ще довго тектиму й там, серед моря, далеко буде видно серед морської блакиті течію рудої річкової води; вона й там ще

The river was bathed in light over all its great expanse. It parted the reeds and poured out freely, repeating the breadth and blueness of the sky, and spoke to all living things in its silent speech. Here I mingle with the seas and oceans of the world. I take leave of the reeds which like the Egyptian papyri draw into themselves the generous secrets of light. I take leave of the frontier watch-tower rising above the reeds, where a young border-guard with field-glasses raised to his eyes stands guard over the blinding silence.... He is on guard over this day, over the flood of light, the transparent pensiveness of the willows, and the uncon­trolled flight of birds over all fron­tier posts. I go to pour my fresh water into Ocean. It will absorb me, one of the many rivers which like me dissolve in its blue infinity. But do I then vanish and leave no trace? Do I not influence at least to a small degree the composition of its water, its degree of saltiness, the level of the shores, the very charac­ter of seas? I, the river of plains and mountains, shall yet flow for a long time, and my brown water will be seen far away in the blue of the sea; there too it will keep its river traits, the freshness of its sources, the yel­lowness of clay from the mountains and valleys, the inner rhythm of

to grow to greater stature in the eyes of

to have caught its master's way

a professional trick

to stare in the face

absolutely dedicated to art

life. Water amidst water - in this itself there is something extraordi­nary; there is something significant in the very act of confluence, in the eternal union of the river with the Ocean.

The world is bright with light, it flows everywhere, an infinite sil­ver flood.

And the power of the water is no longer dreadful.

And the sky is no longer the sky, but the heavens.

довго зберігатиме свою річко­ву природу - і прісноту дже­рел, і колір гірських та долин­них грунтів, і внутрішній рух життя... Вода серед води - вже в цьому є незвичайність; і є щось значне в самому акті впадання, в цьому одвічнім єднанні гирла ріки з Океаном.

Світиться світ. Всюди ро­зіллялося тихе, сріблясте, без­крає...

І повінь уже тут не повінь.

І небо вже тут не небо, а небеса.

Ex. 2. Translate into English using the suggested equivalents.

Ніби виріс в очах кіногрупи Сергій. Його камера - експресивна, зухвала, різка - її ні з чиєю не сплу­таєш. Вона мовби повторювала вдачу господаря; його нервову жа­добу, його невситенність, навіть вади його... Раніш декому не подо­балась в Сергієві, скажімо, ота його набута в кіно професійна манера безцеремонно розглядати людину з ніг до голови, грубувато зазирати незнайомому в очі, мовби допиту­ючись: «Ану, на що ти здатен... Чи хоч трохи ти кіногенічний?» Але зараз і ці манери його прочитува­лись інакше: все ж таки славний був хлопець, душею відданий мистецтву!..

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Lecture 15. INTERPRETATION: BASIC SKILLS AND TRAINING METHODS

This Lecture compares:

• working environments of

• written translators and interpreters;

• consecutive and simultaneous interpreters;

• approaches - denotative and connotative,

• and tools they use:

• text compression and text development

• note-taking and its sequence

• underlines the importance of being skilful in using the tools.

To tell the difference between translation and interpretation let us compare working environments of a translator and interpreter.

• Translator has all time necessary to do and check the translation.

• Interpreter is limited in time and cannot check and redo the in­terpretation.

• Translator has free access to dictionaries and reference material.

• Interpreter has no access to any outside information.

• Translator has no immediate contact with translation users and often is unaware of their reaction.

• Interpreter is in immediate and close contact with the audience reacting to interpretation mistakes

Ш* Translator is dependent on supporting environment; interpreter is entirely self-dependent.

There are two main varieties of interpretation, consecutive and si­multaneous. Though they have much in common and possess all men-

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tioned characteristics that distinguish them from translation there are substantial differences in the working environments as well.

1. In simultaneous interpretation the interpreter is much more limited in time.

2. In simultaneous interpretation the length of the text translated as one 'batch' is much shorter than in consecutive.⁴⁴

3. Unlike consecutive interpretation where the interpreter may correct mistakes and slips of the tongue, simultaneous interpreter has no time for corrections and redoing.

Differences in the working environment of interpreters compared with that of translators as well as differences between working environ­ments of simultaneous and consecutive interpreters determine the pecu­liarities of interpretation approaches and methods.

First of all, as you already know from our previous discussions, the consecutive interpreter adheres to predominantly denotative approach in interpretation whereas the basic approach of simultaneous interpretation is transformational.

•* Long stretches of speech to be translated do not allow the con­secutive interpreter to keep close to the source text, whereas the si­multaneous interpreter is forced by time limitation to translate by small fragments of the source text transforming them according to the target language grammar.

However, both during consecutive and simultaneous interpretation interpreters use text compression and text development as basic translation devices.

⁴⁴ Although simultaneous interpretation seems continuous the flow of in­terpreter's speech may be divided into individual fragments.

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•* Text compression aimed at saving interpretation time and re­moving source text redundancy is one of the main instruments of simultaneous interpretation which allows the interpreter to keep in pace with the source text not sacrificing the content.

In consecutive interpretation text compression is used as well - it al­lows to get rid of the source text redundancy, but the main instrument of consecutive interpretation is text development.

Ш* Ability to compress the source text and develop the target one from the core structure are the basic skills of an interpreter.

Basic compression devices used in Ukrainian-English translation comprise:

a. transformation of the nominative structures into verbal ones;

b. converting prepositional constructions into noun clusters;

c. omission or transformation of words and word combinations typical for Ukrainian style and considered redundant according to English speech standards.

For example:

Згідно з рішенням Ради наглядачів, аудит фінансової діяльності фірм та установ з надання послуг у сфері юридичного консалтингу буде проведено у квітні цього року.

The Supervisory Board decided to audit the books of judiciary consult­ing companies in April this year.

When interpreting into Ukrainian an interpreter is using compres­sion to a lesser degree because:

♦ limited (even with good interpreters) knowledge of the foreign language does not permit free interpretation of the source text and

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♦ English way of expression is more concise and often English text contains no redundant words, which is explained by the analytical struc­ture of this language.

The second basic tool of interpretation - text development - is typi­cal both for English-Ukrainian and Ukrainian-English interpretation. It should be mentioned, however, that text development is more usable in consecutive than in simultaneous interpretation, though simultaneous interpreters also use it.

Ш* Text development in the course of interpretation is the restora­tion of the full composition of a source sentence starting from its syntactic and semantic core accompanied by restructuring of the source sentence in compliance with syntactic and semantic standards of the target language.

Text development is performed either with note-taking or without it. It usually starts from the Subject-Predicate pair and then other sen­tence elements are organized around this core.

Ш* Text development is the optimal method of interpretation be­cause it allows to organize the translation in accordance with the tar­get language style and grammar standards rather than copy the source sentence structure.

The best way to explain text development is an example. Let the source text be:

A few of us American correspondents got together tonight for a tradi­tional New Year's Eve party at our favorite bistro.

Then the interpretation scheme with text development may be as follows:

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1. кореспонденти зібралися (разом)

2. декілька (деякі, дехто) з нас, американських кореспондентів

3. зібралися (разом) сьогодні ввечері

4. зібралися (щоб за традицією зустріти Новий рік)

5. зібрались у бістро

6. бістро (наше, улюблене)

The final target text will appear then as an optimal rearrangement of the above parts of the text development scheme, e. g., as the one below:

Сьогодні ввечері деякі з нас, американських кореспондентів, за традицією зібрались у нашому улюбленому бістро, щоб зустріти Новий рік.

Text development is reflected in note-taking procedure, which usu­ally includes the following information items.

1. main ideas (skeleton outline) - subject, verb, object;

2. links and separations;

3. viewpoints of the speaker;

4. tenses and modalities;

5. proper and geographical names.

There are also certain recommendations for the best way to take notes. Some of them are as follows:

• diagonal notes are preferable for skeleton outline;

• left-hand margin for links and viewpoints;

• short horizontal line for separations;

• question marks for unclear points.⁴⁵

Thus, compression and development are the basic interpretation tools and in our view they should determine the methods of interpreta­tion training. We would recommend the following exercises.⁴⁶

⁴⁵ More on note-taking see, e. g. in: Johnes R. Conference Interpreting Ex­ plained. - New-York, 1999.

⁴⁶ Methods recommended in this Manual may be used together with other interpreters' training exercises, e. g., those suggested by A. Shiryayev.

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Text compression exercises for Ukrainian-English interpretation

Type 1.

In the course of interpretation of a Ukrainian text into English

• omit redundant words;

• convert nominative constructions into verbal;

♦ transform prepositional noun sequences into noun clusters. The exercises are first done in writing, then follows oral training (in­ terpretation).

Type 2.

Conversion of individual Ukrainian prepositional nominative con­structions into English noun clusters.

Conversion of Ukrainian set phrases of noun-verb type into verbs.

Text development and reduction exercises (Ukrainian-English and English- Ukrainian interpretation)

Type 1.

Develop a text from the given core (first done in one language, then with interpretation, first - in writing, then - orally)

Type 2.

Reduce the text to the core, then develop it back.

Text development exercises improve students' knowledge of foreign and native language vocabulary, help to develop easiness and flexibility of vocabulary use in interpretation. Doing text development exercises students might compete for the number of sentences developed or for a better story developed from the given core.

Thus, unlike a translator who may always ask help from outside, an interpreter is entirely self-supporting. In the modern world of globaliza­tion the significance of translation and interpretation is ever-growing The translation and interpretation quality standards are becoming more stringent. In this context it seems worthwhile to complete our discussion

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of interpretation with a short resume of interpretation concept present­ing it as a variety of martial arts.⁴⁷ Here are the principles:

1. reality is whatever happening right at this moment (here and now);

2. to deal with reality you have to be totally aware;

3. for this your body and mind have to be in the 'here and now';

4. in this state of mind there is no room for thoughts: instead there is an instantaneous intuitive response.

Andrey G. Falaleyev. Video-taped lectures and personal communication with the authors.

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QUESTIONS

1.

What are the differences in the working environments of a translator and interpreter?

2.

What are the differences in the working environments of a consecu­tive and simultaneous interpreter?

3.

What are the basic interpretation approaches used by consecutive and simultaneous interpreters? Explain why they keep to a particular approach?

4. What is text compression? 5. What is text development?	How is it used in interpretation? How is it used in interpretation?
{§} EXERCISES
Ex. 1. Find English equivalents c	rfthe words and word combinations below.
відповідати	бути у відповідності
звітувати	давати звіт
розпорядитися	давати розпорядження
погоджуватися	давати згоду
рекомендувати	давати рекомендацію
вирішувати	знаходити вирішення
доповнювати	робити доповнення
перекладати	робити переклад
рухатися	робити кроки
перешкоджати	створювати перешкоди
сходити	здійснювати сходження
відкривати	робити відкриття
оголошувати	робити оголошення
розцінювати	давати оцінку
ударити	завдати удару

Ех. 2. Translate into English using text compression (omit redundant words, convert nominative structures into verbal, use noun clusters, first do in writ­ing, then orally).

а) У миротворчій діяльності міжнародних організацій в останні роки відбулися події, які вимагають уважного вивчення і з'ясування. Так, Статут ООН забороняє міжнародне втручання у внутрішні справи держав, застосування сили, а на практиці мали місце і втручання, і застосування сили. З'явилася концепція «гу­манітарних інтервенцій», які деякі експерти розцінили як удар по суверенітету держав. Назріла необхідність розібратися в сучасності цих дій, дати їм правову оцінку, визначитися у принципово важли­вих питаннях: чи означають вказані події перекреслення принципів Статуту ООН? Чи правомірні «гуманітарні інтервенції»?

Проблема «гуманітарних інтервенцій» виникла в пошуках аде­кватних дій для усунення гуманітарних катастроф; породжених внутрідержавними конфліктами 90-х років, що супроводжувалися масовими порушення прав людини, «етнічними чистками», крово­пролиттям. За даними ООН, було вбито більше 5 млн. осіб, десятки мільйонів стали біженцями і переміщеними особами, що опинили­ся на межі виживання. Трагедія в Руанді, на терені колишньої Юго­славії, в Сомалі порушили перед ООН питання щодо теорії та практики миротворчої діяльності.

Складність полягає в тому, що Статут ООН передбачає не­втручання у внутрішні справи держав, додержання їх суверенітету, незастосування сили в міжнародних відносинах. Але чи може міжнародна спільнота зайняти позицію спостерігача, коли в якійсь країні відбуваються масові вбивства? Чи може суверенітет бути прикриттям для свавілля, кровопролиття в якійсь державі?

Думається, що на сучасному історичному етапі, в умовах гло­балізації, примату загальнолюдських цінностей в основу політики ООН та інших міжнародних організацій має бути покладено прин­цип захисту прав людини, гуманітарне право. Принцип суве­ренітету не може використовуватися в якості прикриття злочинів

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проти людяності. Суверенітет не може розглядатися сьогодні як абсолютний, який дозволяє урядам безкарно масово порушувати права людини. (Бруз B.C.)

b) Перше десятиріччя незалежності стало для української ди­пломатії періодом випробувань, відлуння яких відчуваємо і сьо­годні. Ми просувалися від усвідомлення азбучних істин міжнародного життя до опанування нових правил гри в міжнародних відносинах доби глобалізації та, інформаційного, суспільства. При цьому ми керувалися тим, що у зовнішній політиці важливо, щоб жоден крок не блокував наступні. Важливо, щоб, зовнішня політика зразка 2001року мала внутрішній зв'язок з кроками, здійсненими в році 91-му, 94-му чи 98-му.

Послідовність та передбачуваність - мені видається, ці риси були властиві національній зовнішній політиці, хоча, звичайно, шлях України на міжнародній арені не був безпроблемним і безпо­милковим.

Послідовність та передбачуваність є лейтмотивом всіх наших здобутків. Хотів би зупинитися на деяких з них, які мають, на мою думку, ключовий характер. За цей короткий проміжок часу нам не без труднощів вдалося створити власну зовнішню політику, яка слугує незалежній Україні. Важливим, на моє переконання, було практичне утвердження України на політичній карті світу та зовнішнє забезпечення суверенітету і територіальної цілісності на­шої держави. Якщо пригадуєте, це завдання було Визначене пер­шим із шести найважливіших завдань вітчизняної зовнішньої політики в її Основних напрямах, ухвалених Верховною Радою у 1993 році.

З точки зору 2001 року суверенітет і територіальна цілісність виглядають як природні, самі собою зрозумілі атрибути Ук­раїнської держави. Проте, так було не завжди. Як міністр закор­донних справ, якому доля дарувала високу честь бути першим гла­вою зовнішньополітичного відомства України, хотів би нагадати,

що бар'єрів на нашому шляху суверенної країни було більш ніж достатньо.

Варто згадати знов-таки 1993 рік. Тоді внаслідок рішення російського парламенту щодо статусу Севастополя Україна опини­лася перед необхідністю на рівні ООН наголошувати на недоторка­ності своїх державних кордонів. Липнева заява Голови Ради Безпе­ки остудила гарячі голови тих, хто не бажав миритися з тери­торіальною цілісністю та незалежністю України. Саме здатність української дипломатії зайняти чітку і сміливу позицію стала тоді вирішальним фактором, під впливом якого проблема втратила гос­троту і згасла.

(Зленко A.M.)

Ех. 3. Reduce the text to the core, then develop it back without consulting the text (do first in writing, then orally; first in one language, then with inter­pretation).

THE HUNDRED-YARD CREEP The International Olympic Committee tries to save the world. BY CLAUDIA ROSETT. The Wall Street Journal, Thursday, July 5, 2001

Mission creep is a phrase that keeps turning up in the news, and though not poetic, it does neatly sum up a widespread syndrome. Mis­sion creep is what's going on when an organization overreaches its man­date in order to seize new turf - usually someone else's, often with messy results.

When Genghis Khan and his kin, having decided that lording it over Mongolia was not enough, galloped forth to pillage the known world, that was mission creep. In our more genteel era, the recent news has been full of worry that everything from Balkan peacekeeping forces to faith-based charities to the International Monetary Fund is suffering from mission creep. And why not? As various institutions jockey to reinvent themselves in the post-Cold-War, new-economy global era, it pays to

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make a play for bigger, fatter missions, to creep while the creeping is good.

All of which led me to an epiphany the other day while I was reading about the debate over where to hold the 2008 Olympic Games. There are five cities in the running, including Osaka, Japan; Istanbul, Turkey; Paris and Toronto. The fifth candidate, and apparently the one favored to win when the International Olympic Committee decides next Friday, is Bei­jing-Assorted pro-Beijing factions put forth many arguments. They

speculate that the Olympics would help motivate China to clean up its air, teach its people English, reform its repressive politics, enhance its national pride and build from scratch 22 of the 37 sports facilities needed - thereby, at least in the eyes of a few transient athletes plus the IOC, im­proving its infrastructure.

In the IOC's report summing up the bids, the telling factors in Bei­jing's favor include the assertion that the Olympics would «improve the city» and «leave a unique legacy to China.» The report adds as an after­thought that a Beijing win would also leave a unique though unspecified legacy «to sport.»

The IOC are deep in mission creep. Sure, sports still matter, at least to the world audience and the athletes. But with the IOC's president, Juan Antonio Samaranch, about to step down after 21 years, the real mis­sion here is to leave a legacy. Thus the Olympics are creeping into such specialized tasks as air-cleaning, language-teaching, repression-easing, nationalism-reinforcing and - oh yes - infrastructure-improving.

Even so, what makes Beijing such an ideal candidate for these new Olympian enterprises?

If the Olympic mission now includes inspiring large-scale air cleanup, then Beijing, despite all its smog, is hardly the world's worthiest challenge. For that, a better candidate would have been, say, Norilsk, Russia. This northern Siberian city is home to one of the largest nickel-mining operations in the world, and for more than 60 years its smelters have been pouring corrosive fumes into the arctic winds.

Dispatching the Olympics to Norilsk as a mighty Airwick might have given not only the locals but certain portions of Scandinavia their first relief since the days of Stalin. If Norilsk is impractical, or not quite toxic enough, then arranging for the Olympic events simply to replace the usual traffic at just about any major roundabout in New Delhi could have gone far to save the lungs of millions.

If the Olympic aim is to boost the teaching of basic English where it's really needed, also forget Beijing and hold the Olympics in American public schools.

Then there's the goal of furthering political reform. If the Olympic organizers - despite such miscues as Berlin in 1936 and Moscow in 1980 - have finally mastered this one, then it is raw irresponsibility to focus solely on Beijing. Have a heart for nearby Pyongyang, North Korea, where the Olympic food concessions alone could provide the most excit­ing window on freedom in decades.

Though, to be frank, the IOC still doesn't quite seem to have a han­dle on this political reform business. After a four-day inspection tour, the committee appears to have reached the perhaps unique conclusion that China is already a normal democracy. The IOC states without qualifica­tion in its report on Beijing that «national and local elections will take place in early 2003 and early 2008.»

Yet in order to justify staging the Olympics in Beijing, the IOC also appears to be banking on many more years of rock-solid dictatorship, noting in the same report that «there is strong central government con­trol in all sectors. This could be expected to prevail in respect to an Olympic Games and associated developments and activities.» Not that the IOC is wholly insensitive to the plight of China's stifled democrats. Its report does note that for the beach-volleyball event, «the Commission took the view that the Tiananmen Square site was inappropriate.»

If the committee's aim is to boost national pride, then, again, why bother with already nationalist Beijing? The Olympics should head straight to Minsk, capital of Belarus. Since the 1991 Soviet collapse, Bela-

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rus's self-esteem has been so low that it keeps trying to give itself back to

Moscow.

As for improving infrastructure, what about holding the games in Bangkok? Clearing a site - any site - amid the midtown gridlock of the Thai capital might give at least some of the folks caught in traffic for years a chance to finally get home.

Of course, all this is hypothetical. The 2008 bids are already in. Any interested parties on the list above will have to wait. But the way the IOC is going, it's already encroaching on the mission of sundry development banks. Chief among them is the World Bank, which in recent years has itself been encroaching on the mission of the World Health Organiza­tion, while simultaneously being encroached upon by the ever-more-aggrandized IMF, which has had its own problems with being en­croached upon by the U.S. Treasury.

There's just no end to this stuff. Can it be long before the Kyoto crowd elbows in to demand an emission-free Olympic torch? Maybe Mr. Samaranch's more enduring legacy could be to give all these folks, him­self included, their own Olympic event. Call it the mission creep.

Lecture 16. MACHINE AND COMPUTER-AIDED TRANSLATION

This Lecture: • gives a short review of basic machine translation platforms and methods: *• including direct or icon method;

• transfer-based and pivot-language based engines and

• AI and statistical approaches.

The idea of computer use in translation (hereinafter referred to as machine translation) appeared almost simultaneously with computers. Already in 1949 only five years after the first powerful computer had been put in operation in the USA mathematician and philosopher W. Weaver suggested the use of computers to model the process of transla­tion.

The pioneers of the new research area were mathematicians and programmers and the first stage of computer translation development was characteristic of the so-called «encoding-decoding» approach (see Lectures 2 and 3 of this Manual)⁴⁸

This approach, which still remains one of the basic methods of translation automation is usually called the direct or icon method.

•► Direct or icon method of machine translation is based on estab­lishing a direct relationship between the source and target dictionary entries.

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See more, e. g., in: Bruderer H.E. The Present State of Machine-Assisted Translation // 3-d European Congress on Information Systems and Networks. Overcoming Language Barriers. - Luxemburg, 1977; Slocum J. A Survey on Ma­chine Translation: its History, Current Status and Future Prospects // Computa­tional Linguistics. - 1985. - V.ll, 1.

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The target entries are regarded as regular counterparts (icon copies) of the source ones. According to the direct translation method the source and target texts are presumed to be similar both in their form and con­ceptual content⁴⁹.

You may validate this assumption yourself having done such word-for-word translation. You will see mat rather more often than not such a non-grammatical translation makes no sense at all for the end user and, therefore, it is to be somehow rearranged and smoothed.

To improve the quality of direct translation the two following meth­ods are usually applied:

• syntactic filters and

• statistical ranking of translation equivalents to select the most probable ones for the subject matter discussed in a particular document being translated.

Syntactic filters take the form of logical frames (see Lecture 17) in which the slots are filled with syntactic patterns specifying the function of an ambiguous syntactic term in the representation of the source text. Usually in machine translation systems based on the direct method quite a few filters are used to «smooth down» the raw translation⁵⁰.

According to the classification we suggest in this Manual, the second basic method of machine translation is the transfer-based method.

•* According to the transfer-based method of translation grammars of the source and target languages are matched in the process of translation by a set of rules called transfer.

In a transfer-based system the process of translation comprises the following processing steps:

Morphological analysis. Word-forms of the source text are analysed using paradigm sets and identified with the dictionary entries.

Syntactic analysis. At this stage using the information from the dic­tionary and paradigmatic data syntactic representation of the source text is formed by the syntactic analyser (called parser). A string of syntactic classes or a syntactic tree of the source sentence is passed over to the transfer module.

Transfer. The transfer module receives the syntactic representation of the source text and, using relevant transfer rules, converts it into an intermediate representation.

Syntactic synthesis. At this stage a final syntactic representation of the target text is formed by combining and matching the transferred structures of the source syntactic representation.

Morphological synthesis. Using the information from the target dictionary and paradigmatic data the target text (translation) is obtained.

The way the syntactic representation is formed, analysed and trans­ferred greatly depends on the grammar used. The most common ways are so-called «templates», applied to the linear string of syntactic classes, dependency grammar (DG) or immediate constituents (IC) grammar.

Transfer-based systems rather often comprise a semantic compo­nent. A network of semantic descriptions and relationships is superim­posed on syntactic structures of the source and target texts. The purpose of the semantic component is to improve the accuracy of translation⁵¹.

Pivot language-based machine translation is the third basic method. In a way it is similar to the transfer-based; however, there are several critical differences.

As opposed to transfer procedures which are applied mostly at the syntactic level with some corrective semantics, pivot language represen­tation involves all available linguistic information.

Besides, transfer-based translation is intended for a concrete lan­guage pair, whereas pivot language-based systems claim to be universal, i.e. applicable to any language.

,_r Кулагина О.С. Исследования по машинному переводу. - M., 1979. ⁵⁰ Machine Translation: An Introductory Guide / D.Arnold et al. - Oxford, 1994.

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See more in, e. g.: Кунце Ю. Введение семантических критериев в синтаксические правила // НТИ. - 1986. - 2, 6.

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■ "■"""■"

Ш* A pivot language is a formal description of morphological, syn­tactic and semantic characteristics of a language unit in the form of one-to-one relationship. Each language unit is related to a specific invariable atom in the pivot language structure and vice versa, each atom of the pivot language structure is invariably connected with the units of various languages.

Ideally a pivot language-based machine translation will comprise the following processing steps:

Morphological, syntactic, and semantic analysis of the source text using information of the source language dictionary and paradigms.

Formation of the pivot language representation of a source text by the pivot language module.

Conversion of the source pivot language representation by the pivot language module into the target text using relevant semantic, syntactic, lexical, and morphological data from the target language dictionary and paradigms.

Usually pivot language formalism has the form of a graphic network or its analytical equivalent. It is, indeed, an extremely complicated system of morphological, syntactic and semantic entities and relations. We can hardly show even a part of it in this Manual because of space limitations, and even more because such a detailed presentation is well beyond the scope of this introductory course.

As a rule, linguistic science accepts only the three basic methods of machine translation mentioned above. Some scholars, however, main­tain that the artificial intelligence (Al)-based method should also be included in the classification despite the fact that it relies on encyclopae­dic rather than linguistic findings⁵².

⁵² You may find more about this language and translation modelling method, e.g., in: Schank R.C. Conceptual Dependency: A Theory of Natural Language Understanding // Cognitive Psychology. - 1972. - V.3, 4; Wilks Y. Ma­chine Translation and Artificial Intelligence Paradigm of Language Processing // Computers in Language Research. - 1983. - V.2; Neue Ansatze in maschineller Sprachbearbeitung. - Tuebungen, 1986; Попов З.В. Общение с ЗВМ на есте-ственном язьіке. — М., 1982.

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Hence, to complete the picture it is worthwhile to give a short description of this method as well.

The main component of the AI translation model is its so-called «knowledge base». According to an AI-based translation model the re­sults of linguistic analyses at all language levels are verified against extral-inguistic information contained in the knowledge base.

Here we might want to refer back to our previous discussions. As you may remember, we discussed three factors that help us clarify natu­ral language ambiguities and make translation possible. These are con­text, situation, and background information.

In all three translation modelling methods that we have just dis­cussed, disambiguation is performed only with the help of context. It is rather simple lexical and syntactic context in direct translation model, and much more complicated syntactic and semantic context representa­tions in transfer-based and pivot language models. None of those mod­els, however, makes use of the other two disambiguation tools, i.e. situa­tion and background information.

•* In AI-based translation models disambiguation procedures are radically different and based first and most of all on the analysis of situation and background information (knowledge base), whereas purely linguistic context analysis methods serve only as secondary back-up tools.

The concept of a knowledge base is very similar to that of the subject thesaurus suggested by the communicational theory of translation (see Lectures 3 and 5). Both the knowledge base and subject thesaurus are presumed to contain a specifically arranged hierarchy of the facts of real world with the verbal information playing a subordinate role as labels for the facts and situations.

Another important component of AI-based translation simulation is a decision-making module, comprising a structural hierarchy of logical productions with probability estimations.

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The present level of sophistication of AI-based translation modelling is rather ambiguous - on the one hand, results of the development of AI-models intended for translation as such are rather limited, on the other, however, the development of AI models intended for natural language interface, especially for expert systems, is very efficient⁵³.

This discussion of computer-based translation would be incomplete without mention of statistical methods.

•► In purely statistical methods of translation modelling it is pre­sumed that with certain probability each word of the target text may be a translation of each word of the source text

The various statistical models are different as to further probability estimations. For instance, a model suggested by P. Brown and co­workers estimates the probabilities of the word order matching in the source and target texts⁵⁴. Other models estimate the probabilities of word collocations in source and target texts, and so on.

At present statistical method of machine translation modelling is gaining new popularity because of two factors:

1. Virtually unlimited storage capacity and processing capabilities of new generation computers.

2. Availability of large bilingual text corpora in computer-accessible formats.

See, e.g.: Попов З.В. Зкспертньїе системи. - M., 1988; Инструмента-рий для проектирования систем планирования решений. - К., 1989; Коз-ловский С.В. Лингвистический процессор для персональних зкспертньїх систем // Проблеми автоматического и зкспериментально-фонетического анализа текстов. - Минск, 1986.

⁵⁴ A Statistical Approach to Machine Translation / P.Brown et al. // Com­putational Linguistics. - 1990. - V.16, 2; The Matematics of Statistical Machine Translation: Papameter Estimation / P.Brown et al. // Computational Linguistics. - 1994. - V.19, 2.

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Besides, since we still know very little about how a translation is per­formed, statistical modelling is another attempt to learn more about translation.

It should be noted, however, that none of the machine translation methods appear in real systems in pure form. Very often it is rather diffi­cult to classify unambiguously whether one or another system is a typical representative of a particular basic translation simulation method. For this reason it is hardly worthwhile to analyse here any particular com­mercial machine translation package.

To the best of our knowledge all available commercial packages use that or another alternative of transfer model and the quality level of their products leaves much to desire. We hope that this Manual helped you to understand why this is the case.

Thus, completing our discussion of machine translation we must conclude that unfortunately available machine translation packages are not capable of providing adequate translation. However, it should be noted that such powerful tool as computer can still be used for transla­tion and this variety of translation is called computer-aided translation

Ш* Unlike machine translation, which by definition is wholly auto­matic, computer-aided translation is a tool to assist human transla­tion

In the process of computer-aided translation a translator is using a machine translation system (usually a direct translation variety) for the search of equivalents both for individual words and small text fragments. At the present stage of machine translation development computer-aided translation seems the most appropriate practical alternative.

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0 QUESTIONS

1. What is direct or icon machine translation method?

2. What is transfer-based machine translation method?

3. What is pivot-language based machine translation method?

4. What are artificial intelligence and statistical machine translation methods?

5. What is computer-aided translation? How is it used in human trans­lation?

(D EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Analyse the mistakes of machine translation of the text given below. Suggest translation rules or information required for correct translation.

THE REAL BUSH: TOUGH GUY OR SQUISHY MODERATE?

WASHINGTON - How President Bush responds to last week's ter­rorist attacks on America will not only define him for the rest of his term in office, it will also give us an unfiltered look into his soul.

He does not have to cultivate public support. Polls show that an overwhelming majority of Americans would back even a decision to go to war. Congress, furthermore, is eager to give him whatever he wants. Yet, despite this monolithic support, it's uncertain how the president will respond. Will he be aggressive, squishy or somewhere in-between?

During his first eight months in office, Bush inevitably took the moderate path. The conservative Republican base enabled him to win the White House, but once in the Oval Office, he staffed his administration with moderate Republicans like Andrew H. Card Jr., Colin L. Powell and Christine Todd Whitman.

He was no less flexible on his agenda. Bush initially insisted on a non-negotiable $1.6-trillion tax cut, then negotiated with Democrats and reduced it to $1.3 trillion. During the presidential campaign, he came out strongly against embryonic stem-cell research, but when decision time

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came, he ran to the center, endorsing limited research on existing stem-cell lines. After setting himself four-square against campaign-finance re­form last year, he indicated this summer that he might sign it into law if such legislation ever made it to his desk.

All of which paints a picture of Bush as a man who strikes tough-looking poses, then carefully uses his political leverage to bring about moderate compromises. He may have conservative principles, but none have proved to be unyielding.

True, before Tuesday's lethal attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, the president had to govern as a normal politician, always keeping one eye on his agenda and the other on the ephemeral political calculus that rules Washington. Today, however, Bush is a war-time president, and he is perhaps the only one whose actions will be com­pletely unbound by political considerations. Indeed, it is difficult to con­jure a scenario in which Americans would fault the president for being too assertive. He has carte blanche to do whatever his conscience dic­tates. So, how will he use it?

Last Tuesday, it seemed that Bush might rely on international law to even the score. In his first address to the nation after the attacks, he called the resulting death and devastation a «national tragedy,» promis­ing only that he would «conduct a full-scale investigation to hunt down and to find those folks who committed this act.» His second address went no further, though by his third speech he referred to the day's «acts of terror.» It seemed as if the president would be satisfied to catch the terrorists responsible and extradite them to The Hague for trial. In a cu­rious turn of events, the leaders of Germany and France issued state­ments that were much more pointed. Chancellor Gerhard Schroeder called the attacks «a declaration of war against the civilized world,» while President Jacques Chirac said «we must fight terrorism by all means.»

Encouragingly, Bush's tone changed Wednesday, and he seemed headed toward a stronger course of action than international law. His «acts of terror» turned into «acts of war.» He said that «The United States of America will use all our resources to conquer this enemy.» He

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came close to assuring the country that a military response would even­tually come because, presumably, an act of war against the United States cannot stand unanswered. On Friday, he went further still, vowing to «rid the world of evil.»

Still, the question of what sort of response Bush will decide on is very much open. Former President Bill Clinton spent a few days investi­gating the terrorist bombings of the two U.S. embassies in Africa, then ordered up an attack of cruise missiles and laser-guided bombs on what was believed to be Osama bin Laden's compound in Afghanistan and on Sudan. It was the kind of retaliation that carried as little risk as possible for U.S. military personnel. Bush could similarly opt for surgical strikes, but extend them for a period of weeks. He could launch merely a rhe­torical war on terrorism, like the war on poverty or the war on drugs.

Or, the president could lead us into a real war. He is no longer a politician. He is the war-time leader of a great nation. He knows that both the American public, the country's political leadership and most of the civilized world will stand beside him no matter what he does, be it legal prosecution, surgical strikes or war. It will take great intestinal forti­tude for the president to take a calm measure of events, declare war on nations that harbor our terrorist enemies and possibly deploy U.S. troops on foreign soil.

George W. Bush's words are increasingly tough. He has resolved to win the «first war of the 21st century.» Will his corresponding deeds fol­low?

РЕАЛЬНИЙ КУЩ: МІЦНИЙ GUY АБО SQUISHY ПОМІРНИЙ?

ВАШІНГТОН - Як Кущ Президента відповідає витримати ти­ждень terrorist атаки на America тільки не визначать йому для реш­ти його терміну у відомстві, це також дасть нам unfiltered погляд в його душу.

Він не мусить культивувати суспільну підтримку. Голосування показ що переважна кількість Americans би підтримала навіть рі-

шення поїхати до війни. Конгрес, furthermore, нетерплячим дати йому щоб ні він хоче. Досі, незважаючи на цю монолітну підтрим­ку, це невизначений як президент відповісти. Він буде агресивним, squishy або де-небудь проміжний?

Під час його перших восьми місяців у відомстві, Кущ inevitably взяв помірний шлях. Консервативна Республіканська база дозволе­на йому щоб виграти Білий Будинок, але одного разу у Овалі Ві­домство, він staffed його адміністрація з помірним Republicans люб­лять Andrew Н. Карта Jr., Colin L. Powell та Christine Todd Whitman.

Він знаходився ні менш гнучкий на його порядку денному. Кущ вихідно наполягав на не-negotiable трильоні $1.6 оподаткову­ють ріжуть, тоді обговорив з Democrats та зменшив це до трильону $1.3. Під час президентської кампанії, він вийшов сильно проти embryonic стовбура-клітина дослідження, але коли час рішення прибув, він побіг до центру, що підтримує обмеженого досліджен­ня на існуючому стовбурі-клітина лінії. Після постановки себе чо-тирьох-площі проти кампанїі-фінанси реформа торік, він показав цей літній що він може підписати це в закон якщо таке законодав­ство колись зроблене це до його парти.

Весь з котрих фарбує малюнок Куща як людина котра вражає міцні що -дивляться пози, тоді обережно використовує його полі­тичний вплив викликати помірні компроміси. Він може мати кон­сервативні принципи, але ніхто доказали unyielding.

Вірний, перед атаками lethal Вівторка на Світовому Торговому Центрі та П 'ятикутникові, президент мусить був управляти як но­рмальним політиком, завжди що держить одне око на його поряд­ку денному та іншому на ephemeral політичному calculus що управ­ляє Вашінгтоном. Сьогодні, однак, Кущ війною-час президент, та він можливо єдиним чі дії будуть повністю unbound шляхом полі­тичного розгляду. Дійсно, тяжко conjure сценарієм у котрому Americans би провина президент для існування надто ствердного. Він carte blanche щоб зробити щоб ні його сумління диктує. Так, як він буде використати це?

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Останній вівторок, це здавалося що Кущ може покластися на міжнародне право до навіть рахунку. У його першій адресі до нації після атак, він закликав результуючу смерть та devastation «націо­нальна трагедія,» що обіцяє тільки що він «проведе повне дослі-дження-шкали полювати вниз та щоб знайти ці народи котрі здій­снив цей акт.» Його друга адреса поїхала ніяка далі, хоч шляхом його третьої промови він посилався на «акти дня терору.» Йому здавався так, якби президент був би влаштований щоб спіймати terrorists варті довіри та видають їм до Гааги для іспиту. У допитли­вому обігу подій, лідери Німеччини та Франції видані твердження що значно більше pointed. Канцлер Gerhard Schroeder закликаний атакує декларацію війни проти цивілізованого світу,» в той час, як Президент Jacques Chirac сказав «ми повинні битися терорізм усіма засобами.»

Encouragingly, Тон Куща змінена середа, та він здавався очоле­ний до більш сильного курсу дії ніж міжнародне право. Його «акти терору» повернулися в «акти війни.» Він сказав що «Сполучені Штати Америки використають всі наші ресурси перемогти цього ворога.» Він прибув близька що запевняє країна що воєнна відпо­відь зрештою прибуде тому, що, мабуть, акт війни проти Сполуче­них Штатів не може стенд unanswered. У П 'ятницю, він поїхав далі все-таки, vowing «увільнити світ зла.»

Все-таки, питання якого сорту Куща відповіді вирішить на ду­же сильно відкрите. Колишній Президент Рахунок Clinton витра­чені нечисленні дні що вивчають terrorist bombings двох США по­сольств у Африці, тоді замовлена атака cruise ракети та лазерні -керовані бомби на що знаходились повірені щоб знаходитися Osama контейнер Навантажений складовий у Афганістані та на Sudan. Це являло собою різновид retaliation що носило як малень­кий ризик як можливий для США воєнний персонал. Кущ міг по­дібно opt для хірургійного удару, але простягаються їм на період протягом тижднів. Він міг запустити просто риторичну війну на терорізмі, люблять війну на бідності або війні на наркотиках.

Або, президент міг привести нас в реальну війну. Він більше не політик. Він являє собою війну-час лідер великої нації. Він знає що обидва американська суспільна, країна політичне керівництво та більшість цивілізованого світу лишиться в силі біля йому ніяка ма­терія який він, це правове переслідування, хірургійний удар або війна. Це візьме великий intestinal fortitude для президента взяти спокійну міру подій, заявляють війну на націях що гавань наші terrorist вороги та можливо розгортаються США військо на інозе­мному грунті.

George W. Слова Куща все більше міцні. Він вирішив виграти першу війну 21st віку.» Його відповідні справи Будуть прослідкува­ти?

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Lecture 17. TRANSLATION OF OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS: TEXT FRAMES

9¥ A frame is understood as a set language structure with change­able elements

This Lecture:

underscores differences in translating official and literary texts; gives a brief outline of an official document framework; introduces the notions of:

• a frame,

• a slot,

• and a slot filler.

In a way translation of official documents is the opposite of literary translation in what concerns the freedom of translator's actions and choices.

As you may remember literary translation is more art than craft which is accounted for by the nature of literary texts. Translation of a literary text is unique and unprecedented; it cannot be standardised and obeys almost no rules.

Unlike literary texts the texts of official documents are highly stan­dardised: this applies both to the structure of the whole text (macrostructure) and to the arrangement of individual paragraphs and sentences (microstructure).

At the macro level an official document usually consists of a pream­ble, main text body and a finalising (concluding) part. Depending on the type of document the composition and content of its individual parts may slightly vary (see Appendix to this Manual). In modern linguistics standard text structures intended for information presentation at differ­ent language levels are called frames.⁵⁵

See more in: Минский М. Фреймм для представлення знаний. - М., 1975; Нелюбин Л.Л. Перевод и прикладная лингвистика - М., 1983.

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The changeable elements within a text frame are called slots. Let us take a preamble to a commercial agreement as an example of a frame.

AGREEMENT

This Agreement is made this day of , 1999, by and be­ tween , [a corporation with its principal

office at ] or [an individual with an office and

mailing address at , ] («Agent»), and [company

name], a corporation organized and existing under the laws of , with its principal place of business at

( )■

Here, in the above frame of an agreement the blank spaces represent the slots to be filled with slot fillers (by the date, company names, ad­dresses etc. in this example).

But a text frame seldom has the form of a text with blank spaces. Rather often than not a frame is a standard text with stable and change­able parts, for example:

7. Intellectual Property Rights.

by this Agreement does not grant to Agent any rights in or li­ cense to 's trademarks, trade names or service marks.

reserves all such rights to itself. Agent shall not utilize, without

's express, prior and written consent, any trade or

service marks on trade names, and will promptly report to

_І any apparent unauthorized use by third parties in the Territory of 's trade or service marks or trade names.

In the above text frame the italisized text fragments are presumed to be changeable depending on the subject and conditions of the Agree-

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Let's take an example to illustrate this principle approach to the translation of official documents:

Ш* The task of a translator translating official documents is to find target language equivalents of the source text frames and use them in translation as standard substitutes, filling the slots with frame fillers in compliance with the document content.

ment, e. g. «prior and written consent» may be replaced by «oral consent», etc.

Bearing in mind the standardised and clicheed structure of official documents one may formulate the main translator's task as follows:

UNITED STATES-UKRAINE JOINT STATEMENT U.S. President Clinton and Ukrainian President Kuchma, during their meeting in Kiev on June 5, 2000, reaffirmed their commitment to advance and deepen the strategic partnership between the United States and Ukraine in the 21st century. President Kuchma emphasized Ukraine's commitment to a democratic and market eco­nomic transformation. The Presidents agreed that this transformation is the essential basis for fulfilling Ukraine's European aspirations. President Clinton praised the leadership of President Kuchma and his new government for early pro-

СПІЛЬНА ЗАЯВА УКРАЇНА-США Президент України Л.Кучма та Президент СІЛА У.Клінтон в ході зустрічі в Києві 5 червня 2000 року підтвердили свої зобов'язан­ня забезпечувати поступальний розвиток та поглиблювати страте­гічне партнерство між Україною та США у XXI столітті. Президент Л.Кучма наголосив на відданості України демократичним та рин­ково-економічним перетворен­ням. Президенти погодились, що ці перетворення є суттєвою базою для реалізації європейських праг­нень України. Президент У.Клін­тон високо оцінив керівну роль Президента Л.Кучми та його но­вого Уряду у досягненні швидкого прогресу реформ, відзначаючи

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gress on reform, noting the im­portance of accelerated imple­mentation of reforms, which will strengthen the ability of the United States to support Ukraine in its efforts to im­prove cooperation with the IMF and other international finan­cial institutions. President Clin­ton welcomed the announce­ment by President Kuchma to close the Chornobyl nuclear power plant on December 15, 2000, noting the importance of this decision to strengthening the security of all Europeans, especially the Ukrainian people and their immediate neighbors. President Clinton announced the decision of the United States to provide another $78 million to the Chornobyl Shel­ter Fund. He noted the com­mitment of the United States to continue to work with Ukraine, the G-7 and the international community toward resolving the remaining tasks associated with the closure of Chornobyl, in particular to help provide for stable electricity generation in Ukraine supported by necessary energy reforms. The Presidents expressed their support for a successful second pledging con­ference to be held in July in Berlin to obtain the remaining

важливість прискореної реалізації реформ, що посилюватиме здат­ність США підтримувати зусилля України у покращенні співробіт­ництва з МВФ та іншими міжна­родними фінансовими інституці­ями. Президент У.Клінтон приві­тав оголошення Президентом Л.Кучмою про закриття Чорно­бильської атомної електростанції 15 грудня 2000 року, відзначаючи важливість цього рішення для зміцнення безпеки усіх європей­ців, особливо Українського наро­ду та його безпосередніх сусідів. Президент У.Клінтон оголосив рішення Сполучених Штатів виді­лити додатково 78 мільйонів до­ларів США для Чорнобильського фонду «Укриття». Він зазначив про зобов'язання Сполучених Штатів продовжувати співпрацю з Україною, країнами з «Великої сімки» та міжнародною спільно­тою, аби забезпечити вирішення завдань, що залишаються, пов'я­заних з закриттям ЧАЕС, зокрема для допомоги у забезпеченні ста­більного виробництва електро­енергії в Україні, чому сприяти­муть необхідні реформи в енерге­тичному секторі. Президенти ви­словились на підтримку успішно­го проведення Другої конференції донорів, що відбудеться у липні в Берліні з метою збору решти ко­штів, необхідних для фонду

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funds needed for the Shelter Fund. President Kuchma wel­comed the announcement of an additional $2 million from the United States for nuclear safely work in Ukraine. The Presi­dents welcomed the initiation of the Ukraine Nuclear Fuel Qualification Project, a major technology project to enable Ukraine to evaluate and certify the reliability and safety of new suppliers of fuel for Ukraine's nuclear energy sector. With an estimated value of $30 million, this project will allow Ukraine to diversify its sources of supply of nuclear fuel. President Clin­ton expressed support for Ukrainian participation in the emerging east-west energy cor­ridor from the Caspian region to world markets, within the contexts of Ukraine's energy sector reforms and the United States' broader Caspian energy policy. President Kuchma reaf­firmed Ukraine's European choice and its goal of achieving associate membership and eventually full membership in the European Union, recogniz­ing the importance of contin­ued reforms necessary to achieve that end. The Presidents emphasized the importance of Ukraine's distinctive partner-

«Укриття». Президент Л.Кучма привітав заяву про надання Спо­лученими Штатами додаткових 2 мільйонів доларів США для про­ведення робіт з ядерної безпеки в Україні. Президенти привітали початок реалізації українського проекту кваліфікації ядерного па­лива як масштабного технологіч­ного проекту, що надасть можли­вість Україні оцінювати та серти-фікувати надійність та безпечність нових постачальників палива для українського ядерно-енергетично­го сектору. Цей проект, орієнтов­ною вартістю 30 мільйонів доларів США, дозволить Україні дивер-сифікувати свої джерела поста­чання ядерного палива. Прези­дент У.Клінтон висловив підтри­мку участі України у створенні енергетичного коридору «Схід-Захід» від Каспійського регіону до світових ринків у контекстах ре­форм енергетичного сектору України та ширшої енергетичної політики США у Каспійському регіоні. Президент Л.Кучма під­твердив європейський вибір України та мету набути статусу асоційованого, а згодом і повно­правного члена у Європейському Союзі, визнаючи важливість про­довження реформ, необхідних для досягнення цієї мети. Президенти наголосили на важливості особли­вого партнерства України з НАТО

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ship with NATO and agreed to work to deepen Ukraine's co­operation with the Atlantic Alli­ance. They expressed support for their military cooperation in KFOR, where American and Ukrainian soldiers are working to bring peace and security to Kosovo. President Clinton and President Kuchma praised the success of U.S.-Ukraine coop­eration in the area of commer­cial space launch services, par­ticularly through the Sea Launch Consortium. They an­nounced that the U.S.-Ukraine Commercial Space Launch Agreement of 1996 had been terminated, noting that this bold step will allow U.S. firms and their Ukrainian partners to enter into commercial space launch ventures unfettered by quantity restrictions. The Presi­dents committed to strengthen­ing commercial relationships between their two countries' aerospace firms because of Ukraine's progress in restruc­turing the space sector, its on­going commitment to market-based principles embodied in the Agreement, and to its strong adherence to our shared non-proliferation goals. The Presi­dents affirmed their commit­ment to increase support for

та домовились працювати на по­глиблення співробітництва Украї­ни з Атлантичним Альянсом. Во­ни висловили підтримку військо­вій співпраці в рамках КФОР, де американські та українські солда­ти несуть мир та безпеку в Косово. Президент Л.Кучма та Президент У.Клінтон високо відзначили ус­піх українсько-американського співробітництва в сфері комер­ційних запусків космічних апара­тів, зокрема в рамках консорціуму «Морський старт». Вони оголоси­ли про припинення дії двосто­ронньої Угоди щодо торгівлі в галузі комерційних послуг із кос­мічних запусків від 1996 року, від­значаючи, що завдяки цьому смі­ливому кроку фірми США та їх українські партнери матимуть можливість залучатися до спіль­них проектів у галузі комерційних запусків космічних апаратів без кількісних обмежень. Президенти зобов'язались зміцнювати комер­ційні зв'язки між аерокосмічними підприємствами своїх країн, зва­жаючи на прогрес України у рест­руктуризації космічної галузі, її подальше зобов'язання стосовно ринкових принципів, визначених в згаданій Угоді, та її рішучу від­даність спільним цілям в галузі нерозповсюдження. Президенти підтвердили свої зобов'язання активізувати підтримку розвитку 169

small and medium private en­terprise development in Ukraine. President Clinton an­nounced plans to establish a new micro-enterprise credit program in Ukraine, which will draw upon the successful Fun-dusz Mikro program in Poland, and to initiate a five-year $25 million program to support small and medium enterprise development. President Ku­chma affirmed that the Ukrain­ian Government will ensure as soon as possible the necessary legal and regulatory framework for the new micro-credit pro­gram. The Presidents declared their continued determination to support the creation of a business and investment cli­mate in Ukraine that will facili­tate expanded trade and in­vestment opportunities be­tween their two countries. They welcomed initial steps toward privatizing the energy sector in Ukraine and the entry into force of the U.S.-Ukraine Treaty on Double Taxation. The Presidents pledged to work together to support steps to advance their shared goal of WTO accession for Ukraine as soon as possible. In this con­text, they affirmed their inten­tion to implement the U.S.-

малого та середнього приватного підприємництва в Україні. Прези­дент У.Клінтон оголосив про пла­ни започаткування нової програ­ми мікрокредитування в Україні з використанням успішного досвіду програми «Фонду Мікро» в Польщі та про початок п'ятиріч­ної програми сприяння розвитку малого та середнього підприєм­ництва, на яку виділяється 25 мі­льйонів доларів США. Президент Л.Кучма підтвердив, що Уряд України якомога швидше забез­печить необхідні правові та регу­лятивні рамки для нової програми мікрокредитування. Президенти заявили про свою рішучість й на­далі підтримувати створення та­кого ділового та інвестиційного клімату в Україні, який сприятиме розширенню торгівлі та інвести­ційних можливостей між двома країнами. Вони привітали перші кроки в напрямку приватизації енергетичного сектору України та набуття чинності українсько-американською Конвенцією про уникнення подвійного оподатку­вання. Президенти зобов'язались діяти разом на підтримку кроків для наближення до їхньої спільної мети - якнайшвидшого вступу України до COT. У цьому кон­тексті вони підтвердили свій на­мір виконувати Українсько-американський план спільних дій

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Ukraine Joint Action Plan to Combat Optical Media Piracy in Ukraine and welcomed the Ukrainian Government's sus­pension of the operations of pirate production facilities in Ukraine until the conditions for ensuring legal production are created. President Clinton wel­comed Ukraine's progress to­ward achieving normal trade relations with the United States on a permanent and uncondi­tional basis. President Clinton encouraged Ukraine to con­tinue with reforms that would allow it to achieve market economy status. President Ku­chma emphasized the priority importance for Ukraine to combat corruption in order to strengthen a democratic society and market-oriented economy. In this regard, the Presidents welcomed the Program of U.S.­Ukrainian Cooperation for Combating Corruption and Organized Crime. The Presi­dents recommitted themselves to strengthening efforts be­tween the United States and Ukraine to combat the problem of trafficking in human beings. They welcomed the June 21-23 workshop in Kiev, co-spon­sored by the two Governments. As a new century begins, the

щодо боротьби з нелегальним ви­робництвом оптичних носіїв ін­формації в Україні та привітали призупинення Урядом України функціонування підприємств, що випускали нелегальну продукцію в Україні, до створення умов, які б забезпечували легальність такого виробництва. Президент У.Клін­тон привітав прогрес України у досягненні нормальних торгове­льних відносин зі Сполученими Штатами на постійній та беззасте­режній основі. Президент У.Клін­тон закликав Україну продовжу­вати реформи, що дозволить їй набути статусу країни з ринковою економікою. Президент Л.Кучма наголосив на пріоритетному зна­ченні для України боротьби з ко­рупцією з метою зміцнення демо­кратичного суспільства та ринко­во-орієнтованої економіки. В цьому зв'язку Президенти приві­тали Програму українсько-американського співробітництва у сфері боротьби з корупцією та організованою злочинністю. Пре­зиденти підтвердили свої зобов'я­зання посилити взаємодію між Україною та США у боротьбі з проблемою торгівлі людьми. Вони привітали проведення у Києві 21-23 червня відповідного семінару, який спільно організовується обома урядами. На порозі нового століття Президенти підтвердили,

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що через стратегічне партнерство Сполучені Штати підтримувати­муть зусилля України посісти на­лежне їй місце у неподільній євро­атлантичній спільноті вільних та стабільних держав. Одночасно Україна продовжуватиме втілення своїх демократичних та ринкових перетворень, таким чином робля­чи власний внесок в євроатланти­чну безпеку.

Presidents affirmed that through their strategic partner­ship, the United States will sup­port Ukraine's efforts to take its rightful place among an undi­vided Euro-Atlantic community of free and stable states. Ukraine will, at the same time continue to implement its de­mocratic and market transfor­mation, thus contributing to Euro-Atlantic security.

Another important task of a translator translating official documents is to keep to proper matching patterns of lexical and grammatical struc­tures within the frames. To give an example, English forms of Participle I in the preamble of some international agreements may be rendered in Ukrainian as «з метою...»

Besides, translators of official documents must pay special attention to translation of standard terms and terminological word combination in the texts.

More information on grammatical and other aspects of official document translation are given in the lecture that follows.

О QUESTIONS

1. Compare the principles of literary translation and those of official document translation.

2. What is peculiar about the text of official documents?

3. What is a text frame? Define it. What are the frame slots and slot fillers? Give examples of text frames with slots.

4. What is the main approach to the translation of official documents?

5. Give examples of grammar patterns and standard terms in the text of official documents.

[§J EXERCISES

Ex. 1. Translate into Ukrainian observing the frame structure and terms of the source text.

POWER OF ATTORNEY

I, , the senior partner of

law firm, Street, city

of (country) regulated by the Law Society of Eng­ land and Wales, being duly authorized representative and attorneys

of. Company, , city of ,

by this POWER OF ATTORNEY authorize and appoint

Advocate Firm « » (hereinafter - Advocate firm),

registered on... of. , 199 by the Ministry of Justice of Ukraine,

registration # , identification code , to act on behalf

of. (together «the Company») on matters related

to interests of the Company on the territory of Ukraine in all matters arising from and/or relating to the

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The Advocate firm is authorized:

1. To conduct any negotiations concerning the purpose of this Power of Attorney on the territory of Ukraine;

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2. To approach with any applications and letters of official requests any of official boards, organizations, courts, notary offices, legal entities and physical persons in Ukraine;

3. To lawfully represent Company with regards to any official boards and organizations, including, but not limited, court, notary and admini­stration boards, notary offices, companies, legal entities and physical per­sons of Ukraine within the legal scope of herein presented Power of At­torney;

4. To represent Company's interests in courts of all institutions ow­ing all rights given to plaintiff, defendant, to the third person, as well as get to know documents of case, to make extracts, to copy; to sue, to sign statements of claim and other documents that amend and supplement it, to sign any documents related, to claim; to bring any claim; to insert any alterations in and amendments to claim; to change claim demands; to contest a claim; to establish a claim; to abandon a claim; to counterclaim; to defend a suit; to take part in court proceedings; to afford proof, to lake part in investigation of proofs; to present petitions, to present oral and writing explanations in courts of any institutions; to afford their proofs and present their considerations in connection with questions which can arise in court proceedings; to raise objections against petitions and proofs of participants of a court procedure; to participate in taking a de­cision; to amicable agreement; to file an appeal; to make use of all other rights for Participant under Ukrainian legislation; a use of all other rights for Participant under the Ukrainian legislation;

5. To represent the Company in any and all State Bodies and institu­tions of Ukraine in connection with execution of the decision of courts of any institutions;

6. To carry out any and all actions on behalf of the Company related to execution of the decision of courts including, but not limited to sign­ing, presenting and receiving all documents in connection with it.

7. To carry out any negotiations with any third parties on any pecu­niary compensations and penalties concerning the Accident, including, but not limited to determination of sum of any pecuniary compensations and penalties, definition of dead line of payments of any pecuniary com­pensations and penalties, conclusion and signing on behalf of the interest of the Company of any contracts or additional agreements in connection with it; carrying out of any other actions concerning the penalty of pecu-

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niary compensations and penalties from third parties on behalf of the interest of the Company;

8. On behalf of the Company to sign relevant documents as to the purpose of this Power of Attorney;

9. To do any other activities to his opinion necessary for Company's interests on the territory of

The Advocate firm has the right to define independently advocates and collaborators for execution of above mentioned authorities and grant above mentioned through issuing a corresponding Power of Attor­ney to any advocates and collaborators working at the Advocate firm.

This Power of Attorney is issued on 2001 and is valid till

Senior Partner

Signature

Ex. 2. Translate into English observing the frame structure and terms of the source text.

ДОВІРЕНІСТЬ

(населенний пункт)

(число, місяць, рік словами)

Я, громадянин

(прізвище, ім'я та по батькові)

що проживає за адресою:

паспорт _ серія _ № , виданий « »

19 р.

і ор-

гану, що видав паспорт)

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Уповноважую громадянина __^_

що проживає за адресою:

паспорт _ серія _ № , виданий « » 19 р.

(назва органу, що видав паспорт)

бути моїм представником у всіх підприємствах, установах, ор­ганізаціях незалежно від форм власності, в тому числі органах вла­ди та управління в питаннях

У зв'язку з чим надаю йому такі права:

1. Брати участь у ;

2. Подавати від мого імені листи, заяви, клопотання та інші доку­менти;

3. Підписувати від мого імені листи, заяви, вимоги, клопотання, протоколи, скарги та інші документи;

4. Одержувати інформацію, документи та пояснення від , а також підприємств, установ, ор­ ганізацій ;

6. Здійснювати інші дії, необхідні для виконання представницьких функцій для управління належними мені корпоративними права­ми.

Довіреність видана без права передовіри та дійсна років, тоб­ то до

(Підпис)

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Lecture 18. TRANSLATION OF OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS: GRAMMATICAL ASPECTS

This Lecture:

• outlines official substyles;

• shows features common to all the substyles;

• offers instruction in translation of certain English constructions typical of official style.

The style of official documents is represented by the following sub-styles or variants:

• the language of business documents;

• the language of legal documents;

• the language of diplomacy;

• the language of military documents⁵⁶.

Like other styles of language, this style has a definite communicative aim and, accordingly, has its own system of interrelated language and stylistic means. The main aim of this type of communication is to state the conditions binding two parties in an undertaking and to reach agree­ment between two contracting parties.

Each of the subdivisions of this style has its own peculiar terms, phrases and expressions, which differ from the corresponding terms, phrases and expressions of other variants of this style.

The peculiar features common to all stylistical varieties of official documents are the following:

♦ the use of abbreviations, conventional symbols and contrac­ tions. (There are so many of them that there are special addenda in dic­ tionaries to decode them);

⁵⁶ See more in: Гальперин И.Р. Стилистика английского язьїка: Учеб-ник. - 3-є изд. - М.: Вьісш. школа, 1981. - С.312-318; Карабан В.І. Переклад англійської наукової і технічної літератури. - Нова Книга, 2001. Mascull В. Collins Cobuild. Key Words in Business. - Harper Collins, 1996.

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• the use of words in their logical dictionary meaning;

• absence of emotiveness;

• definite compositional pattern and design (see Lecture 17).

It should be also noted that the syntactical pattern of this style is as important as the vocabulary.

•► Translation of legal, economic, diplomatic and official business papers requires not only sufficient knowledge of terms, phrases and expressions, but also depends on the clear comprehension of the structure of a sentence, some specific grammar and syntactical pat­terns, which are characteristic of this style.

Coming across an unknown term in the text a translator can consult a dictionary. Coming across such a phenomenon as the Nominative Ab­solute Construction, for instance, a translator can find it time-consuming to search for an equivalent conveying its meaning, unless he or she already knows the corresponding pattern.

This Manual is intended for students who are already aware of the basics and peculiarities of the grammar and syntax of the English lan­guage. That is why it offers below only some instruction in translation of certain English constructions, which can cause special difficulties while translating.

INFINITIVE

Depending on the function the Infinitive plays in the sentence it can be translated in the following ways:

♦ as an adverbial modifier of purpose the Infinitive can express an independent idea that adds some new information about its subject; the adverb «only» is omitted in translation, e. g.

The president announced his resignation after the failure of his drive to push through the merger of the two countries last summer.

Президент повідомив про свою відставку після того, як влітку минулого року його кампанія за об'єднання двох країн зазнала не­вдачі.

♦ after adjectives «the last, the only» and ordinal numerals the In­ finitive is translated as the predicate of an attributive subordinate clause, its tense form is determined by the context, e. g.

He was the first high official to be admitted to the inner council of government, to the cabinet.

Він був першим високопоставленим службовцем, якого було до­пущено до закритих нарад з питань державного управління і навіть до засідань кабінету.

♦ «if + noun + be + infinitive» can be translated as «для того щоб», e. g.

In any event, members of the association should be prepared to put aside partisan interests if consensus on the abovementioned principles is to be achieved.

У будь-якому випадку, щоб дійти згоди щодо зазначених приципів, члени асоціації повинні облишити свої партійні інтереси.

♦ the Complex Object with the Infinitive is translated as an object subordinate clause, e. g.

Both experiments revealed the rated dimensions to be highly interre­lated.

Обидва експерименти показали, що розрахункові параметри ду­же тісно пов 'язані між собою.

♦ the Complex Subject with passive forms of the verbs «think, ex­ pect, show, see, find, argue, know, mean, consider, regard, report, be­ lieve, hold, suppose, note, presume, claim, admit, interpret, etc.» is translated as a complex sentence with an object subordinate clause. Care should be taken about non-perfect forms of the Infinitive (which are translated in the Present time) and perfect forms (which are translated in the Past time), e. g.,

Still they can hardly be said to have formulated a true scientific theory.

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179

І все ж навряд чи можна стверджувати, що вони сформулювали дійсно наукову теорію.

The term «model» is held to have important normative significance. Вважається, що термін «модель» має важливе нормативне зна­чення.

• the Complex Subject with active forms of the verbs «happen, appear, see, prove, turn out, be likely, be certain, be sure, etc.» is trans­lated in two possible ways:

• the English finite form is transformed into a Ukrainian paren­thesis and the English Infinitive into a Ukrainian predicate, e. g.,

So, there appear to be two choices. Отже, виявляється, вибір існує.

♦ the English finite form is transformed into a Ukrainian main clause {«малоймовірно», «мені здається», etc.) and the English Infini­ tive into a Ukrainian predicate in an object subordinate clause, e. g.,

Neither proposal is likely to work.

Малоймовірно, щоб якась із цих пропозицій виявилася слушною.

♦ if the English predicate has an object «by somebody» such predicate-object clusters are translated as a parenthesis «на думку», «за даними», «як показав (виявив, встановив, описав)», є. g.,

The results were interpreted by Brown (1989) to be insufficient to draw any substantial conclusions.

На думку Брауна (1989), цих результатів недостатньо для то­го, щоб зробити якісь вагомі висновки.

GERUND

Depending on the function, the Gerund plays in the sentence it can be translated as:

♦ a noun

Banking on a loss of nerve within the board of trustees may turn out to be misguided.

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Розрахунок на те, що члени ради опікунів втратять витримку, може виявитися невірним.

♦ an infinitive, e. g.,

Under the pressure of national campaign, he showed a positive gift for saying the wrong things in the wrong words at the wrong time.

В умовах напруженої кампанії, що проводиться в країні, він ви­являв безумовний дар говорити не те, що треба, не так, як треба, і не тоді, коли треба.

♦ a participle, e. g.,

In Washington there is quiet satisfaction that the French by joining the float have indirectly acknowledged that the U.S. was right all along.

У Вашингтоні висловлюють задоволення з приводу того, що Франція, приєднавшись до країн з плаваючим курсом валюти, таким чином непрямо визнала, що США були повністю праві.

The Perfect Gerund denotes an action which is prior to the action expressed by the finite form of the verb, e. g.,

After having been colonies for a long time, many Asian and African countries have now become independent states.

Багато країн Азії та Африки, що протягом тривалого часу бу­ли колоніями, стали тепер незалежними.

The priority of the action can be expressed not only by a Perfect Gerund, e. g.,

This African country thanked France for offering (= having offered) her a helping hand.

Ця африканська країна подякувала Франції за те, що Франція простягла руку допомоги.

PARTICIPLE

Participle I can be translated as:

♦ an attributive clause, e. g.,

In the carriage there was only an old man reading his paper.

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У вагоні був лише один старий чоловік, який читав газету.

♦ an adverbial clause, e. g.,

Heavy artillery and mortar fire broke out again in the city last night, virtually putting the whole population of the city under a state of siege.

Вчора в місті знову розпочалася інтенсивна артилерійська та мінометна стрілянина, через що все його населення фактично опи­нилося в облозі.

♦ a separate sentence, e. g.,

The treasury announced that in August the sterling area had a gold and dollar deficit of 44 million dollars bringing the gold and dollar reserves down to the lowest level reached this year.

Міністерство фінансів оголосило, що в серпні стерлінгова зона мала золотий і доларовий дефіцит у розмірі 44 мільйонів доларів. Таким чином золотий і доларовий запаси сягнули найнижчого рівня за цей рік.

As a part of the Complex Object construction Participle I and Parti­ciple II can be translated as:

♦ an object clause, e. g.,

At the cemetery mourners knocked over tombstones in their frantic ef­fort to watch the body being lowered into the earth.

На цвинтарі, охоплені несамовитим бажанням побачити, як домовину опускають у землю, учасники траурної процесії перекидали надгробки.

The country would like to see its proposals approved by the General As­sembly.

Країна хотіла б, щоб її пропозиції були схвалені Генеральною Асамблеєю.

Participle II at the beginning of the sentence can be translated as:

♦ an adverbial clause, e. g.,

Asked if the United States is rendering military aid to the forces oppos­ing the lawful government in that country the senator gave an evasive reply.

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На питання про те, чи надають Сполучені Штати військову допомогу силам, які протистоять законному уряду цієї країни, сена­тор дав ухильну відповідь.

Some Participles I and II have fixed equivalents: conjunction pro­vided; preposition given; preposition failing; conjunction granted; prepo­sitions following; followed by; assuming; considering.

The Nominative Absolute construction with Participles I and II can be translated in different ways depending on (1) the form of the Partici­ple; (2) the position of the construction in the sentence:

♦ the Nominative Absolute construction with Participle I is in postposition and plays the function of an adverbial modifier of attending circumstances:

The Prime Minister and the African National Council promptly lapsed into mutual recrimination, each seeking to blame the other for deadlock.

Прем'єр-міністр і Африканська національна рада негайно пе­рейшли до взаємних обвинувачень, до того ж кожна сторона намага­лася перекласти на іншу провину за те, що вони потрапили у без­вихідь.

♦ the Nominative Absolute construction with Participles I and II is in preposition and plays the function of an adverbial modifier of cause or time:

That done with, the two statesmen had subsided into long and profit­able talks about other subjects.

Після того, як з цим питанням було закінчено, обидва державні діячі поринули у довгу та плідну розмову що стосувалася інших пи­тань, (adverbial modifier of time).

It being too late for further discussion, the session was adjourned. Засідання було відкладено, оскільки було занадто пізно, щоб про­довжувати дискусію, (adverbial modifier of cause)

The second element of the Nominative Absolute construction can be expressed by a noun or an adverb:

The first conference a failure, another meeting at a ministerial level was decided upon.

183

У зв'язку з невдачею першої конференції було прийнято рішення про проведення ще однієї зустрічі на рівні міністрів.

The debate over, the meeting was adjourned.

Дебати скінчилися, і засідання було оголошено закритим.

The second element of the Nominative Absolute construction can be also expressed by an infinitive. It can be related to the future action:

With the Congress still to be elected, the Republican leadership is al­ready moving to team up with the Southern Democrats, as it did in the palmy days of the New Deal.

Хоча вибори до Конгресу ще попереду, керівництво Республіканської партії вже вживає заходів щодо об'єднання з демократами з Півдня, як це було під час розквіту Нового курсу.

INVERSION

The order of words in which the subject is placed after the predicate is called inverted order or inversion. While translating the target sentence retains the word order of the source sentence in many cases:

Of special interest should be the first article in Chapter 1. Особливий інтерес має становити перша стаття у главі 1.

Also treated are such matters as theory construction and methodology. Розглядаються також такі питання, як побудова теорії та методика дослідження.

Had this material been examined from this viewpoint, the regularities that he discovers would probably have gone unnoted.

Якби цей матеріал було досліджено з такої точки зору, закономірності, які він встановлює, залишилися б, можливо, непоміченими.

Subordinate clauses of concession with an inverted predicate often serve emphatic purposes and can be translated with the help of Ukrain­ian combinations хоч; хоч який би:

Such a principle, strange as it may seem, is championed in one form or another by certain scholars.

Такий принцип, хоч він і може видатися досить дивним, відстоюють деякі вчені.

Useful as it is, the book has two general shortcomings.

Хоча ця книга й корисна, вона все ж має два суттєвих недоліки.

184

185

03 QUESTIONS

1. Compare the principles of literary translation and those of official document translation.

1. What is peculiar about the text of official documents?

2. What is a text frame? Define it. What are frame slots and slot fillers? Give examples of text frames with slots.

2. What is the main approach to the translation of official documents?

3. Give examples of grammar patterns and standard terms in the text of official documents.

E] EXERCISES

Ex 1. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the infinitive or infinitive constructions:

1. The United Nations principal function is to maintain peace and prevent war.

The decisions of the Yalta and Potsdam conferences pointed out the treat of militarism and aggression to the course of peace and security and provided a system of measures to eliminate sources of war and aggres­sion.

2. Other areas of major concern relate to the seabed and ocean floor and mean to ensure their reservation for peaceful use.

3. Disputes are to be settled by peaceful means.

Member states undertake not to use force or the threat of force in contravention of the purposes of the UN.

4. States not-members of the UN are required to act in accordance with these principles so far as may be necessary for the maintenance of international peace and security.

5. The General Assembly is expressly authorised to deal with specific disputes and situations brought before it and to undertake studies and make recommendations for promoting international co-operation in political, social, cultural and educational matters for encouraging the development of international law and for assisting in the realisation of human rights and fundamental freedoms.

186

Ex 2. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the gerund or gerundial constructions:

1. Polls keep indicating that a majority of Americans hold strong doubts about the candidate's ability to handle his job.

2. Each side insists on withholding its part of the bargain until the other has acted.

3. The situation in the country is a lesson in the dangers of upsetting the delicate balance of neutralist politics.

4. The impossibility of disregarding established diplomatic rules does not, however, preclude suspicious host governments from keeping a watchful eye on diplomatic missions and diplomats suspected of abus­ing their privileges and immunities.

5. My objection is to writing books about him before there is any­thing serious to write, and offering accounts, which are very far from objective.

6. All this, however, has not prevented the head of the delegation and his colleagues from keeping up their end of a dialogue, which reflects a practical approach and a real willingness to consider serious proposals.

7. Amnesty, often granted to student troublemakers last year, is to be a thing of the past at many colleges. Instead of being forgiven for mis­conduct, more students are to be suspended or expelled.

8. They are terrified of being drawn into taking over responsibility for their own security.

9. The same end is not at all served, at least, not in any direct way, by getting rid of the secretary of defense.

10. No sign exists of the president having concerned himself with the substance of these two important questions.

Ex 3. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the participles or participial constructions:

1. But most (98%) of the businesses in the United States are «small» businesses - independendy owned and operated and having fewer than twenty employees.

2. Whether a business has one employee working at home, 100 working in a retail store, 10,000 working a plant or factory or 100,000 working in branch offices nation-wide, all businesses share the same definition and are organized for the same purpose: to earn profits.

187

3. There being no survivors, the exact causes which led to the acci­dent will never be known.

4. Government legislation leads a company to change its hiring prac­tices; technological advances convince a company to change its manufac­turing processes; changes in consumer tastes tell a company to alter its marketing strategies.

5. The number of working women is rising - and, as a result, the number of two salary households and the number of women managers are also rising steadily.

6. With the new countries in, the United Nations will for the first time include Britain's allies and associates.

7. When sole proprietors borrow money, they do so as individuals, using their own personal assets to finance personal loans.

8. A tactical plan is specific, detailed, and current, focusing on pre­sent operations.

9. The ratification debate should take place as quickly as possible, it being understood that the president of the republic should not sign the treaty until the «preconditions» are fulfilled.

10. Once objectives and plans have been established, the organizing function comes into play.

11. Managers' decisions range from minor and relatively unimpor­tant to major and potentially life-threatening to the organization.

12. UNEP in co-operation with the Specialised Agencies and other organisations is trying to check loss of land through erosion, aridity, sa­linity and encroaching cities.

13. The 18 riparian countries have begun research and monitoring of the condition of the sea, most have signed the Barcelona Convention agreeing to control pollution and over-fishing, and they have begun plans for joint development of that sea.

14. The intellectual attractions of the law regulating literary and ar­tistic property account only in small part for the rise of copyright law.

15. Sometimes copyright law is taught together with trademark and patent law in a one-semester optional course dealing generally with intel­lectual property.

16. The students prepare the texts and the questions before each class, knowing that the professor may call upon them to explain or criti­cize a text, or to analyse a question or a hypothetical case.

188

17. First, a practical response: appreciation of the theoretical underpinnings of a particular domain helps the lawyer formulate an analysis of any problem concerning that domain.

18. An expensive advertising campaign can attract you to a com­pany, its impressive building will make you glad you come, but if the first person you deal with is wearing a purple tank top and flared trousers, are you really going to take them seriously?

19. Every week brings fresh outrage at tales of bosses of privatised firms picking up huge pay rises.

20. This fact cannot be stated too often and too clearly.

21. All other things being equal, one would assume that the latter so­lution is more plausible.

22. As is generally true of conference volumes, the quality of these papers is uneven.

23. But in no way does it approach the book under review in depth, scope, or insight of coverage.

24. But there would have to be some other mechanism for dealing with the optional positions.

25. He waited, standing in his room and trying to reason himself into a decent temper.

189

APPENDIX

is engaged БЕРУЧИ ДО УВАГИ, що

RECITALS ЗАГАЛЬНІ ПОЛОЖЕННЯ

TEXT PATTERNS AND ADDITIONAL TRAINING

MATERIAL

AGREEMENT

This Agreement is made this

day of , 1999,

by and between

corporation with its principal

office at ]

or [an individual with an office and mailing address at

] («Agent»), and

[company name], a corporation organized and existing under the

laws of ,

with its principal place of busi­ ness at •"

(_

.)•

WHEREAS,

in, among other things, the busi­ ness of international trade, and in particular, international trade involving

(collectively, and

the «Products»);

УГОДА

Цю Угоду укладено

1999 року між

[корпорацією, головна контора якої знаходиться за. адресою:

]

чи [особою, контора якої знаходить­ ся за адресою: ] («Аген­ том») і [назва компанії], корпорації, що заснована і діє відповідно до за­ конодавства , голо­ вна контора якої знаходиться за ад­ ресою:

серед іншого, займається міжна­ родною торгівлею, і, зокрема, міжнародною торгівлею

(товарами, у своїй су­ купності іменованих «Продукці­ єю») і

WHEREAS, Agent has experi­ence in matters involving trade in the Products and, in particu­lar, trade involving the Products

with and in (the

«Territory»); and

WHEREAS, desires to

purchase and sell Products from and to entities in the Territory, and desires to work with Agent concerning such trade of Prod­ucts to and from the Territory; and

WHEREAS, Agent is willing and able to provide such services to

NOW, THEREFORE, in consid­ eration of the mutual promises and covenants set forth below, and Agent under­ stand and agree as follows:

1. Appointment

hereby appoints Agent

as its non-exclusive service pro­vider, on the terms and condi­tions stated in this Agreement,

relating to purchase of

Products from and sale of Prod­ucts to entities located in the Territory.

БЕРУЧИ ДО УВАГИ, що Агент має досвід у справах, що стосу­ються торгівлі Продукцією, і, зо­крема, торгівлі Продукцією з

(«Територією») і на

Території; і

БЕРУЧИ ДО УВАГИ, що

бажає купувати Продукцію у осіб, що знаходяться на Терито­рії, а також продавати їм Проду­кцію, і бажає співпрацювати з Агентом у питаннях, що стосу­ються такої торгівлі Продукцією, що надходить на Територію і з неї, і

БЕРУЧИ ДО УВАГИ, що Агент бажає і має можливість надавати такі послуги .

ТОМУ, з урахуванням обопіль­них зобов'язань і домовленостей,

викладених нижче, і

Агент досягли взаєморозуміння і домовилися про нижченаведене:

1. Призначення Агента Цією Угодою при­ значає Агента для надання послуг на неексклюзивних умовах, за­ значених у даній Угоді, щодо

придбання Продукції

у суб'єктів економічної діяльнос­ті, що знаходяться на Території, і продажу Продукції таким суб'єк­там.

190

191

2. Duties and Obligations of

Agent

2.A. Agent shall regularly consult

with on and inform

of any Product purchas­ ing, selling, marketing, trading and related matters in the Terri­ tory, including but not limited to

providing with timely

and accurate information con­cerning:

(1). prevailing marketing price and other sale terms for Prod­ucts imported into the Territory;

2. prevailing market prices and other purchase terms for Prod­ucts exported from the Terri­tory;

3. the identity of any persons or entities which are actual or po­tential importers of Products into and/or exporters of Prod­ucts from the Territory and po­tential buyers from or sellers, to

(4) any other matters which may be of interest to in or­ der to ensure that is at

all times kept well informed of market conditions and trade op­portunities relating to the trade of Products involving the Terri­tory, and with such other mat­ters related to the foregoing as

may reasonably

request.

2. Обов'язки Агента

2.А. Агент регулярно консульту­ ється з з питань при­ дбання, продажу, організації збу­ ту Продукції, торгівлі нею і з по­ дібних питань, а також інформує щодо згаданих питань про стан справ на Території, включаючи, але не обмежуючись, наданням своєчасної і точної інформації, що стосується:

1. існуючих ринкових цін і ін­ших умов продажу Продукції, ввезеної на Територію;

2. існуючих ринкових цін і ін­ших умов придбання Продукції, експортованої з даної Території;

(3) визначенням національної приналежності осіб, що є реаль­ ними чи потенційними імпорте­ рами і/чи експортерами Продук­ ції на даній Території чи потен­ ційними покупцями чи продав­ цями ;

(4) з усіх інших питань, що мо­ жуть становити інтерес для

, з метою забезпечення

належного рівня його поінфор­мованості про умови на ринку і можливості торгівлі Продукцією на даній Території, а також з усіх інших питань, що стосуються вищезгаданого, у випадку, якщо

звернеться з подібним

прийнятним проханням.

192

2.В. Agent shall inform

of changes in any laws, rules, regulations, or practices regard­ing the import and export of Products into and from the Ter­ritory or relating to other issues involving trade, finance, politics or business issues and events in the Territory generally affecting the trade in Products. 2.C. Agent shall, when requested

by , serve as a liaison

between and its cus­ tomer or potential customers for the receipt, transmission, pres­ entation, and explanation (where appropriate) of commu­ nications between and

potential or actual customers, both prior to, during and follow­ ing the term of any contacts be­ tween and such en­ tities.

2 D. Agent shall solicit offers to sell to or buy from potential buyers or sellers of Products in the Territory and forward such

offers to by facsimile

for acceptance or rejection by

2.E. Agent shall assist ,

as it may request, in performing and fulfilling its obligations un­der its contacts to sell to or buy Products from exporters from or importers into the Territory (such exporters or importers

2.Б. Агент інформує про

зміни законодавства, норматив­ної і правової бази Чи практики, що стосуються імпорту і експор­ту Продукції на даній Території, чи з інших питань, що стосують­ся торгівлі, фінансів, політики чи бізнесу і подій на Території, які можуть впливати на торгівлю Продукцією взагалі.

2.В. Агент, на прохання ,

забезпечує підтримання зв'язку між і його клієнтом чи по­ тенційними клієнтами, з метою одержання, передачі, надання пояснень (де це доречно) повід­ омлень і спілкування між

і потенційними чи реальними клієнтами, до початку, під час і після припинення терміну дії

будь-якого контракту між

і такими суб'єктами економічної діяльності.

2.Г. Агент консультує з

питань продажу чи придбання у потенційних покупців чи про­давців на Території і передає такі

пропозиції за допомогою

факсимільного зв'язку для їх

прийняття чи відхилення _.

2.Д. Агент надає допомогу, у ви­падку звернення до нього з поді­бним проханням, у виконанні зобов'язань за контрактами купі-влі-продажу Продукції експорте­рів і імпортерів на Території (експортерів чи імпортерів, що

193

with contracts to sell to or buy

from hereinafter

collectively referred to as

's «Customers»)

including any

obligation to arrange for and/or monitor the loading and unload­ing of vessels, arrange for neces­sary transport to or from ports in the Territory, present to or obtain documents from

's Customers, arrange

for the issuance of performance bonds and other related services in support of 's per­ formance under its purchase or sale contracts with its Custom­ ers.

2.F. Agent shall assist

employees and representatives when they visit the Territory by

helping obtain, at 's

cost, entry visas, hotel rooms, local transport, and with related logistical matters.

3. Compensation 3.A. In consideration of, and as full payment for the services provided by Agent under this

Agreement, shall pay to

Agent a fee (choose one):

equal to U.S. per

for all Products

purchased or sold by

має контракти на продаж чи

придбання Продукції , що

тут і далі у своїй сукупності іме­нуються «Клієнтами»), включаю­чи будь-які зобов'язання щодо організації і спостереження за навантаженням і розвантажен­ням суден, організовує необхідну доставку до/з портів Території, пред'являє документи Клієнтам і одержує документи від Клієнтів

, організовує одержання

гарантій виконання контрактів і інших, пов'язаних з виконанням контрактів, послуг, з метою на­дання підтримки у діяльності

за контрактами купівлі-

продажу з Клієнтами. 2.Е. Агент надає допомогу служ­ бовцям і представникам ,

коли вони прибувають на Тери­ торію, і сприяє в одержанні, за рахунок , в'їзних віз, готе­ льних номерів, місцевих транс­ портних засобів і у відповідному матеріально-технічному забезпе­ ченні.

3. Відшкодування З.А. Як винагороду і повний роз­ рахунок за послуги, надані за ці­ єю Угодою, сплачує Аген­ ту гонорар (виберіть один із ва­ ріантів):

що дорівнює доларів США

_ за , за всю Продукцію,

придбану чи продану у

194

under a Covered Transac­ tion

equal to

% of the final

invoice price for all Products

purchased or sold by

under a Covered Transaction

according to the

rates "set forth in the attached Schedule A for all Products pur­ chase or sold by un­ der a Covered Transaction. 3.B. For the purposes of this Agreement, a «Covered Transac­ tion» shall mean the purchase or sale of Products under a contact with a Customer dated during the term of this Agreement and which contract is either (1) be­ tween and a Customer

introduced to by Agent

during the term hereof, or (2) successfully entered into or per­formed as a direct result of the effort and services of Agent. Notwithstanding anything in the foregoing to the contrary, a «Covered Transaction» does not

include sales of origin

goods under government

export programs which prohibit the payment of commissions, fees, or other similar compensa­tion.

3.C. All payments due to Agent under this Agreement shall be payable in

відповідності з Покритою опера­цією;

що дорівнює %, від

остаточної фактурної ціни за всю Продукцію, придбану чи продану у відповідності з Покри­ тою операцією

згідно зі ставками, зазна­ ченими в Додатку А на всю Про­ дукцію, придбану чи продану у відповідності з Покри­ тою операцією.

З.Б. У цілях цієї Угоди, «Покрита операція» означає придбання чи продаж Продукції за контрактом із Клієнтом, датованим протягом терміну дії даної Угоди, де конт­ ракт складений або (1) між

і Клієнтом, представленим Агентом у вищезга­ даний період, чи (2) успішно укладений і виконаний у резуль­ таті безпосередніх зусиль Агента і наданих ним послуг. Незважаючи на вищезгадані умови, де може йтися про проти­ лежне, «Покрита операція» не включає продажу товарів, що

походять із відповідно до

експортних програм уряду

, за якими заборонено

сплату комісійних, гонорарів чи інших подібних винагород.

З.В. Усі виплати, що належать до сплати Агенту відповідно до да­ної Угоди, виконуються в

195

(unless otherwise prohibited) and will be paid solely by check or wire transfer. No payment will be made by ^___ in cash or bearer instrument. All pay­ments will be made solely to Agent and to no other person or entity; payments made by wire transfer will be made to a bank account in Agent's name at a bank located in the country of Agent's principal place of busi­ness.

3.D. will make pay­ ments due to Agent under this

Agreement within

( ) days:

(i) for Products purchased

by from Customers,

the payment or delivery of other consideration by or on behalf of

to the Customer, or

(ii) for Products sold by

to Customers, the

actual receipt of funds for value or other full consideration by or

on behalf of from the

Customer;

provided, however, that prior to

making any payment under this

Agreement shall have

received Agent's invoice for the full amount due. 3.E. Agent shall have no right to assign any portion of its rights to receive payments from

(якщо це не заборо­ нено іншими угодами) і викону­ ються винятково чеком чи теле­ графним переказом. Жодні ви­ плати не будуть здійснюватися готівкою чи документами на пред'явника. Усі виплати будуть здійснюватися винятково Агенту, а не будь-якій іншій особі чи су­ б'єкту економічної діяльності; платежі можуть бути виконані на банківський рахунок на ім'я Аге­ нта в країні місцезнаходження головної контори Агента.

З.Г. робить виплати, що

належать до сплати Агенту у від­ повідності з даною Угодою про­ тягом ( ) днів:

(і) за Продукцію, придбану від Клієнтів, за на­ дання інших послуг

чи від його імені Клієнтам, чи

(іі) за Продукцію, продану Клієнтам, фактичне оде­ ржання коштів за чи еквівалент за надання інших послуг у пов­ ному обсязі . чи від його

імені Клієнтам;

однак, за умови, що до здійснен­ ня будь-якого платежу відповід­ но до даної Угоди одер­ жить рахунок-фактуру від Агента на всю суму, що належить йому. З.Д. Агент не має жодного права передавати яку-небудь частину своїх прав на одержання коштів

196

under this Agreement to any third party without the prior

written consent of

and, unless otherwise agreed by

in writing, Agent and

its employees shall personally perform the services required by ■ -- Agent further agrees that it will not pay or transfer any portion of the payments re­ ceived from to any

foreign official or other person in violation of law.

3.F. In the event the Covered Transaction is part of a barter arrangement involving the ex­change of commodities, the sale or purchase price (as the case may be) for purposes of calculat­ing the fee due to Agent under this Agreement shall reflect the than existing market value of the Products sold or purchased as mutually agreed between Agent

and .

4. Term; Termination

4.A. This Agreement will com­ mence on , and

shall continue in effect thereafter until terminated (i) at any time by the mutual written consent of the parties or (ii) by either party with or without cause, by providing sixty (60) days prior written notice to the other.

від за цією Угодою жод­ ній третій стороні без попере­ дньої письмової згоди і,

якщо інше не передбачено

письмово, Агент і його

персонал особисто надають по­ слуги, необхідні . Крім того,

Агент згоден з тим, що він не бу­ де сплачувати чи переказувати жодну частину коштів, одержа­ них від нікому з інозем­ них посадових чи яких-небудь інших осіб у порушення законів

З.Е. У випадку, якщо Покрита операція є бартерною і передба­ чає обмін товарами, ціна прода­ жу покупки чи (у залежності від обставин) з метою визначення розміру гонорару, що належить Агенту за цією Угодою, повинна відбивати реальну ринкову вар­ тість Продукції, проданої чи придбаної за взаємною згодою Агента і .

4. Терміни і припинення чиннос­ті Угоди 4.А. Дана Угода набуває сили з

і залишається чинною до

її припинення (і) у будь-який час за взаємною письмовою згодою сторін (іі) будь-якої із сторін із зазначенням чи без зазначення причини, з наданням іншій сто­ роні письмового попередження про це за ( ) днів.

197

4.B. Upon termination of this Agreement, Agent will have no further claim or right to for compensation or other payment of any kind whatsoever, except for the payment of fees earned prior to the termination date in accordance with Section 3 of this Agreement.

4.C. Notwithstanding anything in Clause 4.A to the contrary, either party may terminate this Agreement with immediate ef­fect upon the giving of notice in the event the other violates or breaches any term or provision of this Agreement. 5. Independent Contractor The parties expressly acknowl­edge and agree that Agent is an independent contractor and is not a partner, joint venturer or

employee of ,

Agent does not have, and will not hold itself out as having, any

authority to bind to

any contract, debt or other obli­gation. Agent acknowledges and agrees that the negotiation of, agreement to all terms and con­ditions, and the execution of any purchase or sale contracts for Products with Customers shall be sole responsibility of

. Agent shall have

the exclusive right and obligation to select, hire and supervise all

4.Б. Після припинення дії даної Угоди Агент не буде мати жод­них претензій чи прав, крім як на виплату гонорарів, зароблених ним до дати припинення дії Уго­ди, у відповідності зі Статтею.З даної Угоди.

4.В. Незважаючи на положення Статті 4.А про протилежне, кож­ на зі сторін може припинити дію даної Угоди негайно, повідоми­ вши про це, у випадку, якщо ін­ ша сторона діє всупереч будь- яким положенням чи умовам даної Угоди чи порушує їх. 5. Незалежна сторона в договорі Сторони особливо застерігають і погоджуються з тим, що Агент є незалежною стороною в договорі і не є партнером, учасником спі­ льного підприємства чи службо­ вцем , Агент не має і не

буде вимагати для себе повнова­ жень зв'язувати жодним

контрактом, борговими чи ін­ шими зобов'язаннями. Агент ви­ знає і згоден, що переговори з приводу всіх умов і положень і згода на їхнє встановлення, ви­ конання яких-небудь контрактів з Клієнтами на покупку чи про­ даж продукції є винятково пре­ рогативою . Виключним

правом і обов'язком Агента є до­бір, прийом на роботу і здійснен-

198

persons hired by it and shall be solely responsible for the pay­ment of any and all related com­pensation, wages and other li­abilities imposed upon employ­ers under labor and/or any ap­plicable social legislation. Agent shall be solely responsible for any and all expenses incurred in

providing services to

under this Agreement, including but not limited to the cost of rent, office equipment, commu­nications and travel, except

where has specifically

agreed, in writing and in ad­vance, to cover or reimburse Agent for any such expenses.

7. Miscellaneous

7.A. This Agreement may not be amended or supplemented ex­cept by written agreement signed by both parties hereto.

7.B. This Agreement contains the entire agreement between the parties hereto with respect to the contents hereof and supersedes all prior agreements and under­standings between the parties, written or oral.

7.C. This Agreement shall be subject to the laws of the . . Any dispute

ня контролю за найнятими ним особами, і є єдиною особою, від­повідальною за виплату будь-яких належних винагород, заро­бітної плати і розрахунків за ін­шими зобов'язаннями, що на­кладаються на роботодавців згід­но з трудовим і/чи іншим відпо­відним соціальним законодавст­вом. Агент одноосібно відповідає за всі і будь-які витрати, понесені

ним при наданні послуг за

даною Угодою, які включають, але не обмежуються, вартістю оренди, офісного устаткування, комунікацій і поїздок, за винят­ ком випадків, про які

особливо застеріг, письмово і завчасно, що він покриває чи відшкодовує Агенту будь-які з таких витрат. 7. Різне

7.А. Ця Угода не підлягає змінам чи доповненням, за винятком тих випадків, коли такі викону­ються письмо за згодою і підпи­сом обох сторін.

7.Б. Цю Угоду складено за по­вною згодою сторін щодо її зміс­ту, і вона заміняє собою всі попе­редні угоди і домовленості, дося­гнуті між сторонами, письмові чи усні.

7.В. Дана Угода регулюється за­ конам . Будь-який спір,

що виникає між сторонами з 199

arising between the parties under this Agreement which cannot be amicably resolved by the parties shall be subject to non-binding mediation using the services of a sole mediator under the media­ tion rules of the

or such

other recognized mediation ser­ vice or association as the parties may mutually agree. If the dis­ pute cannot be resolved by me­ diation then the dispute shall be referred to binding arbitration in according to the In­ ternational Commercial Arbitra­ tion Rules and Procedures of the American Arbitration Associa­ tion, with each party appointing an arbitrator and the two party- arbitrators appointing a third arbitrator-chairman. The arbi­ tration award shall be final and binding, and judgment upon the arbitrators' award may be en­ tered in any court of competent jurisdiction.

7.D. All notices required under this Agreement shall be given in writing by telex and registered mail. Notices shall be deemed effective 1 business day after be­ing sent, in the case of telex no­tices, and, in the case of regis­tered mail, after being placed in

приводу даної Угоди, що не мо­ же бути врегульований сторона­ ми у дружній спосіб, підлягає врегулюванню за допомогою по­ середництва, що не є обов'язко­ вим, із залученням одного посе­ редника відповідно до правил проведення посередницьких

операцій чи іншої

відомої посередницької служби чи асоціації, за взаємною згодою сторін. Якщо спір не може бути врегульований за допомогою по­ середника, тоді він передається на обов'язковий розгляд до відповідно до Між­ народних правил торгового арбі­ тражу і регламенту Американсь­ кої асоціації арбітражу, причому кожна зі сторін призначає арбіт­ ра, а обидві сторони разом при­ значають третього арбітра, що виступає в ролі голови. Рішення арбітражу є остаточним і обов'я­ зковим для виконання, а поста­ нова суду з приводу арбітражно­ го рішення може бути винесена у будь-якій належній судовій ін­ станції.

7.Г. Усі повідомлення, що вима­гаються відповідно до даної Уго­ди, складаються у письмовому вигляді і пересилаються телексом чи у вигляді рекомендованої ко­респонденції. Повідомлення вва­жаються дійсними через один день після відправлення телексом,

200

the mail, postage pre-paid, and addressed as follows:

If to Agent:

Attn: If to

Attn:

7.E. Agent agrees to keep private and confidential any and all in­ formation regarding

and its business activities (and those of its parent affiliated com­ panies) that may dis­ close to it or that Agent may otherwise obtain, and further agrees that it will not disclose any such information to any other person or entity or use it for its own benefit without the express prior written consent of

. This Agreement is

not a license and Agent has no

right to use any of 's

trade names, trademarks, service marks or other intellectual prop­ erty except as may

specifically agree in writing.

а у випадку рекомендованої коре­спонденції - за датою відправлен­ня на поштовому штемпелі, з пе­редоплатою поштових зборів, і надсилаються за адресою: Агенту:

Кому:

Кому:

7.Д. Агент погоджується не роз­ голошувати і зберігати конфіде­ нційність будь-якої і всієї інфор­ мації, що стосується і

ведення справ (і справ його ма­ теринської і дочірньої компаній), з якими може ознайоми­ ти його, а крім того, Агент пого­ джується не розкривати таку ін­ формацію нікому з інших фізич­ них чи юридичних осіб, або ви­ користовувати для власної виго­ ди, не одержавши на це попере­ дньо письмового підтвердження явно вираженої згоди . Да­ на Угода не є ліцензійною і Агент не має права використовувати жодні з фірмових назв, торгових марок, знаків обслуговування й інших прав інтелектуальної влас­ ності, крім випадків, коли

у письмовому вигляді дає дозвіл на використання подібного.

201

7.F. shall have the right

to engage other persons or enti­ties during the term of this Agreement to provide the same or similar types of services to

relating to the trade

of Products involving the Terri­tory concurrently with the ser­vices provided by Agent under this Agreement.

7.G. This Agreement has been executed in two originals, one

being kept by and

one by Agent, but each original constituting one and the same document.

IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the parties by their authorized repre­sentatives have signed this Agreement as of the day and year above written.

AGENT

By: _

Title: !

By:_ Title:

7.E має право залучати

інших осіб чи об'єкти економіч­ної діяльності під час терміну чинності цієї Угоди для надання

послуг подібного виду,

які зв'язані з торгівлею Продук­цією на даній Території, одноча­сно з наданням послуг, що нада­ються Агентом за даною Угодою.

7.Ж. Цю Угоду складено в двох примірниках, що є оригіналами, один знаходиться в , а ін­ ший - в Агента, причому обидва оригінали складають той самий документ.

НА ПІДТВЕРДЖЕННЯ ЧОГО сторони через своїх уповноваже­них представників підписали да­ну Угоду вищевказаного числа і року.

АГЕНТ

Посада:

Посада:

202

TREATY ON THE NON-PROLIFERATION OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS

The States concluding this Treaty, hereinafter referred to as the «Parties to the Treaty»,

Considering the devastation that would be visited upon all mankind by a nuclear war and the consequent need to make every effort to avert the danger of such a war and to take meas­ures to safeguard the security of peoples,

Believing that the prolifera­tion of nuclear weapons would seriously enhance the danger of nuclear war,

In conformity with resolu­tions of the United Nations General Assembly calling for the conclusion of an agreement on the prevention of wider dis­semination of nuclear weapons,

Undertaking to cooperate in facilitating the application of International Atomic Energy Agency safeguards on peaceful nuclear activities,

Expressing their support for research, development and other efforts to further the application, within the framework of the In­ternational Atomic Energy Agency safeguards system, of the principle of safeguarding effec-